Commercial Modules Research Articles

Full-spectrum radiative cooling for enhanced thermal and electrical performance of bifacial solar photovoltaic modules: A nationwide quantitative analysis

Bifacial photovoltaic (bPV) technologies have been garnering increasing attention in recent years due to their ability to generate more power than conventional PV systems. Passive radiative cooling through spectrally selective absorption/emission is considered one of the most practical and cost-effective solutions for the thermal management of bPV modules. In this study, a full-spectrum radiative cooling (FRC) strategy was proposed to maximize the thermal and electrical performance of bPV modules by enhancing above-bandgap absorption, sub-bandgap reflection, and thermal radiation. A multi-physics model was established to characterize bPV performance, enabling analysis of the module's spectral and thermal responses to full-spectrum light under dynamic weather conditions. The proposed model was validated through outdoor experiments with a commercial bPV module, demonstrating good prediction accuracy. To quantify the radiative cooling effect of the ideal FRC strategy and compare it with the ideal traditional radiative cooling (TRC) strategy, a nationwide simulation analysis was conducted across 32 cities in China. The results indicate that the ideal FRC strategy can achieve an annual average temperature reduction of 2.3–4.4 °C and an additional power gain of 7.3%–8.4% for commercial bPV modules. In comparison, the ideal TRC strategy can only achieve an annual average temperature reduction of 1.1–2.2 °C and an additional power gain of 0.38%–0.89%. Results from correlation analysis and sensitivity analysis show that among environmental parameters, wind speed has the most significant positive effect on lowering module temperature, while precipitable water vapor has a relatively small negative impact. Overall, this research demonstrates that the FRC strategy holds great potential for reducing temperature and boosting power output in PV devices, paving the way for promoting the development of sustainable and efficient PV systems.

Mechanical Analysis of the Quasi-Static and Dynamic Composite Action in PV Modules with Viscoelastic Encapsulant.

The mechanical analysis of photovoltaics and building integrated photovoltaics is a key step for their optimal design and certification, and requires careful consideration, alongside solar power, durability and functionality issues. The solar cells are encapsulated in thin interlayers that are usually composed of a viscoelastic Ethylene-Vinyl Acetate compound, and protected by thin glass and/or plastic layers. This paper investigates the out-of-plane bending response of a full-scale commercial PV module and focuses attention on the shear bonding efficiency of the thin encapsulant for quasi-static and dynamic mechanical considerations. The parametric analytical analysis, carried out in this study for a laminated glass plate, highlights the possible consequences of the viscoelastic shear coupling on the cross-section load-bearing demand in the covers. As a direct effect of severe operational conditions (i.e., ageing, non-uniform/cyclic thermal gradients, humidity, extreme mechanical/thermal loads, etc.) the shear rigidity and adhesion of these films can suffer from repeated/progressive modification and even degradation, and thus induce major stress and deflection effects in the out-of-plane mechanical response of the PV module components. The minimum shear bond efficiency required to prevent mechanical issues is calculated for various configurations of technical interest. Accordingly, it is shown how the quasi-static and dynamic mechanical performance of the system modifies as a function of a more rigid or weak shear coupling.

Inspection Techniques Using Scanning Acoustic Microscopy for Silver Sintering Applications in Power Electronic Modules

This work presents a practical perspective to Scanning Acoustic Microscopy (SAM) for Ag-sintering applications in power electronic modules and devices. It aims to present typical challenges to consider whilst performing C-SAM for inspecting and analysing microstructures within power electronic devices, with emphasis on silver-sintered interconnects. The study presents a vast number of acoustic images (discrete devices in TO-247 packages, power modules, and also custom samples of substrates and devices), where several defects are identified, including voids, cracks, and delamination. Challenges for Ag-sintered layers inspection related to advanced surface finishes are also revealed and discussed in detail. The suitability of C-SAM for inspecting small and large areas of Ag-sintered interfaces is discussed, and showcased with custom samples, and a commercial power module.

Determining Factors to Understand the External Quantum Efficiency Values: Study Carried Out with Copper(I)-I and 1,2-Bis(4-pyridyl)ethane Coordination Polymers as Downshifters in Photovoltaic Modules.

Downshifters refer to compounds with the capacity to absorb UV photons and transform them into visible light. The integration of such downshifters has the potential to improve the efficiency of commercial photovoltaic modules. Initially, costly lanthanide derivatives and organic fluorescent dyes were introduced, resulting in a heightened module efficiency. In a novel research direction guided by the same physicochemical principles, the utilization of copper(I) coordination compounds is proposed. This choice is motivated by its simpler and more economical synthesis, primarily due to copper being a more abundant and less toxic element. Our proposal involves employing 1,2-bis(4-pyridyl) ethane (bpe), an economically viable commercial ligand, in conjunction with CuI to synthesize coordination polymers: [CuI(bpe)]n(1), [Cu3I3(bpe)3]n(2), and [CuI(bpe)0.5]n(3). These polymers exhibit the ability to absorb UV photons and emit light within the green and orange spectra. To conduct external quantum efficiency studies, the compounds are dispersed on glass and then encapsulated with ethylene vinyl acetate through heating to 150 °C. Interestingly, during these procedural steps, the solvents and temperatures employed induce a phase transformation, which has been thoroughly examined through both experimental analysis and theoretical calculations. The outcomes of these studies reveal an enhancement in external quantum efficiency with [Cu3I3(bpe)3]n(2), at a cost significantly lower (between 340 and 350 times) than that associated with lanthanide DS complexes.

Self-assembled Cu doped NiO loaded reduced graphene oxide: Multifunctional photothermal framework for interfacial water evaporation, disinfection and power generation

Development of self-assembled multifunctional photothermal materials is considered as reconciliation between solar energy harvesting and sustainable energy and environmental applications. Herein, we report strategically designed self-assembled Cu-doped-NiO nanoparticles loaded-rGO (rGO-Cu-NiO) framework. The self-assembly exhibited synergistic photothermal conversion, floatable porous structure for efficient capillary action enabling water transmission and quick steam escape pathways. The optimized rGO-Cu-NiO framework achieved interfacial water evaporation rate of 1.47 kgm−2h−1 with 92% conversion efficiency under 1Sun illumination. Maximum surface temperature of the framework displays 74 °C under 2Sun irradiation, making it highly feasible to be implemented as solar water purifier. Cell viability examination indicated the superior antimicrobial properties, making it a promising candidate for photothermal therapy application. Moreover, the self-assembled rGO-Cu-NiO framework integrated with the commercial thermoelectric module shows outstanding photothermal conversion efficiency to envisage its ability towards electrical power generation. Impressively, the amalgamation of the framework with the Bi2Te3 based commercial thermoelectric module proficiently reinforce the performance of the thermoelectric generator by offering an enhanced power output of 3.91 mW and appreciably high power density of 0.311 mW/cm2. Overall, the excellent stability, no photo-leaching, effectiveness to produce pure water from seawater, antimicrobial properties, recyclability, make rGO-Cu-NiO a perfect epitome of sustainable water treatment and power generation application.

Experimental CIGS technology performance under low concentration photovoltaic conditions

This research study assesses the influence of the concentration factor on two different PV technologies: c-Si and CIGS, to analyze the feasibility of utilizing CIGS thin-film technology in Low Concentration Photovoltaic conditions. Additionally, the importance of the encapsulation design is explored to determine the optimum thermal management strategy. The initial phase involves an analysis of the thermal performance of two types of commercial photovoltaic module and explores the enhancement of temperature management in CIGS photovoltaics modules by substituting the rear glass backsheet with an aluminum sheet to reduce the operating temperature of the prototype. Subsequently, various prototypes are fabricated, incorporating CIGS and silicon technologies, and different encapsulation designs: tedlar, glass and aluminum backsheets. The analysis reveals that comparing performance under 2.2× and 1× concentration conditions, CIGS technology exhibits the higher performance at 2.2×, making it a more promising choice for LCPV systems. While CIGS technology boasts an intrinsic advantage because of its open circuit voltage temperature coefficient, its performance enhancement under LCPV conditions is further amplified through the optimization of the backsheet to improve the thermal management.

Design and simulation of a superconducting machine excitation system taking into account the three-dimensional magnetic leakage

The optimized design of a new high-temperature superconducting rotating pole machine is presented. Its main structural feature is the use of a double stator core which separates the synchronous machine pole shoe from the pole body to rotate separately as the machine rotor, allowing the superconducting coil to operate in a stationary state. The inner stator core, the stationary dewar and the rotor core together form the excitation system of the machine. The excitation coil windings adopt a rectangular cross-section, with flux divertor strategically placed between the high-temperature superconducting coils. This configuration aims to modulate the background magnetic field, specifically reducing the perpendicular magnetic field component. This mitigation minimizes the impact of ambient magnetic fields on the superconducting coil’s current carrying capacity, ensuring an optimized magnetic field environment for its operation. Through the integration of these modifications, the technical and economic parameters of the enhanced high-temperature superconducting machine have been significantly improved. The optimization of design, coupled with detailed calculations of the 3D electromagnetic field, was achieved utilizing the commercial software Ansys EM module.

Effects of the pin-fins cooler roughness on the thermo-fluid dynamics performance of a SiC power module

The objective of this study was to develop a Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) 3D model for an industrial application, to investigate how surface roughness affected pressure drop and thermal performance in the ACEPACKTM DRIVE, a commercial SiC-based power module used in traction inverters, that features a pin-finned baseplate with cylindrical pin-fins. The surface roughness of the pin-fins was modelled by using a sand-grain model available in Ansys Fluent, which represents a novelty in the literature and can pave the way for the development of accurate and computationally efficient simulations. The CFD model exhibits an error from experimental data within the range 10%–22% when the flow rate varies from 2 l/min to 12 l/min (maximum error at 2 l/min), while the validation of the thermal behaviour was obtained with a maximum error of 2.5%. Subsequently, a parametric analysis was carried out, varying the flow rate of the coolant, in order to investigate the influence of pin-fins surface roughness on performance, by considering two possible design option featuring respectively a surface roughness equal to 1 μm and 6 μm. The results showed a reduction in pressure drop from 4% to 11% and a degradation of the thermal performance, less than the 2%, when the pin-fins roughness increases.

AFM probe with the U-shaped cross-sectional cantilever for measuring the ultra-low coefficient of friction of 10−6

Accurately measuring the coefficient of friction (COF) is the fundamental prerequisite of superlubricity research. This study aimed to reduce the COF measurement resolution Δμ of atomic force microscopy (AFM). Based on the theoretical model, a distinctive strategy was adopted to reduce Δμ by optimizing the cantilever’s cross-section of the AFM probe, inspired by civil engineering. Δμ can be reduced by decreasing the width of the horizontal side wR and the wall thickness t and increasing the width of the vertical side wH. Moreover, the I-shape demonstrates the highest reduction in Δμ, followed by the U-shape. Considering the processability, the AFM probe with the U-shaped cross-sectional cantilever was investigated further, and the dimensions are 35 µm wR, 3.5 µm wH, 0.5 µm t, 50 µm l (cantilever length), and 23 µm htip (tip height). The finite element analysis results confirm its reliability. After being fabricated and calibrated, the AFM probe achieves the minimal Δμ of 1.9×10−6 under the maximum normal force so far. Additionally, the friction detection capability of the fabricated AFM probe improves by 78 times compared to the commercial tipless-force modulation mode (TL-FM) AFM probe with the conventional solid rectangular cross-sectional cantilever. This study provides a powerful tool for measuring 10−6 COF.

Real-Time Measurement of CH4 in Human Breath Using a Compact CH4/CO2 Sensor.

The presence of an elevated amount of methane (CH4) in exhaled breath can be used as a non-invasive tool to monitor certain health conditions. A compact, inexpensive and transportable CH4 sensor is thus very interesting for this purpose. In addition, if the sensor is also able to simultaneously measure carbon dioxide (CO2), one can extract the end-tidal concentration of exhaled CH4. Here, we report on such a sensor based on a commercial detection module using tunable diode laser absorption spectroscopy. It was found that the measured CH4/CO2 values exhibit a strong interference with water vapor. Therefore, correction functions were experimentally identified and validated for both CO2 and CH4. A custom-built breath sampler was developed and tested with the sensor for real-time measurements of CH4 and CO2 in exhaled breath. As a result, the breath sensor demonstrated the capability of accurately measuring the exhaled CH4 and CO2 profiles in real-time. We obtained minimum detection limits of ~80 ppbv for CH4 and ~700 ppmv for CO2 in 1.5 s measurement time.

Multicenter Experience with Good Manufacturing Practice Production of [11C]PiB for Amyloid Positron Emission Tomography Imaging.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder with increasing global prevalence and accounts for over half of all dementia cases. Early diagnosis is paramount for not only the management of the disease, but also for the development of new AD treatments. The current golden standard for diagnosis is performed by positron emission tomography (PET) scans with the tracer [11C]Pittsburg Compound B ([11C]PiB), which targets amyloid beta protein (Aβ) that builds up as plaques in the brain of AD patients. The increasing demand for AD diagnostics is in turn expected to drive an increase in [11C]PiB-PET scans and the setup of new [11C]PiB production lines at PET centers globally. Here, we present the [11C]PiB production setups, experiences, and use from four Danish PET facilities and discuss the challenges and potential pitfalls of [11C]PiB production. We report on the [11C]PiB production performed with the 6-OH-BTA-0 precursor dissolved in either dry acetone or 2-butanone and by using either [11C]CO2 or [11C]CH4 as 11C- precursors on three different commercial synthesis modules: TracerLab FX C Pro, ScanSys, or TracerMaker. It was found that the [11C]CO2 method gives the highest radioactive yield (1.5 to 3.2 GBq vs. 0.8 ± 0.3 GBq), while the highest molar activity (98.0 ± 61.4 GBq/μmol vs. 21.2 to 95.6 GBq/μmol) was achieved using [11C]CH4. [11C]PiB production with [11C]CO2 on a TracerLab FX C Pro offered the most desirable results, with the highest yield of 3.17 ± 1.20 GBq and good molar activity of 95.6 ± 44.2 GBq/μmol. Moreover, all reported methods produced [11C]PiB in quantities suitable for clinical applications, thus providing a foundation for other PET facilities seeking to establish their own [11C]PiB production.

Analysis of Range and Speed Detection Using A Commercial RADAR module at 24GHz

In this work, the performance of OmniPreSense Module OPS243-C has been studied for range and speed detection, at 24 GHz, whose results are obtained using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) commands using a MATLAB script and verified with the physical range of objects used. Four custom-made scenarios have been created, two using stationary objects namely a stand and a tripod for their range at two different distances, and two using moving objects, a person and a ceiling fan for their respective speed. A total of 10 observations for range detection are taken inside an anechoic chamber and reported with a range of percentage errors, which varies for objects and their range. The mean values of the tripod and stand range are detected at 4.06m and 0.42m, respectively, in scenario 1 whereas in scenario 2, the mean values of the tripod and stand range are found to be 2.56m and 1.53m, respectively. Thestandard deviations in these observations are found from 0.09 to 0.12 m for range detection. In scenario 3, the speed of a moving person is found to be varied from 2.0 m/s to -2.1 m/s for Inbound and Outbound directions from the module at a distance of 4.62 m. For scenario 4, a variation in the speed of the rotating fan is observed at the knob positions (0 to 4) from the OFF to ON condition of the fan and is found to be varied from 0.1 m/s to 4.9 m/s at different knob positions. In both scenarios 3 and 4, the speed data is found with a standard deviation less than 0.5 m/s from 10 observations. In this analysis, results confirm that the OPS243-C can detect stationary and moving objects successfully.

Remanufacturing Perovskite Solar Cells and Modules-A Holistic Case Study.

While perovskite photovoltaic (PV) devices are on the verge of commercialization, promising methods to recycle or remanufacture fully encapsulated perovskite solar cells (PSCs) and modules are still missing. Through a detailed life-cycle assessment shown in this work, we identify that the majority of the greenhouse gas emissions can be reduced by re-using the glass substrate and parts of the PV cells. Based on these analytical findings, we develop a novel thermally assisted mechanochemical approach to remove the encapsulants, the electrode, and the perovskite absorber, allowing reuse of most of the device constituents for remanufacturing PSCs, which recovered nearly 90% of their initial performance. Notably, this is the first experimental demonstration of remanufacturing PSCs with an encapsulant and an edge-seal, which are necessary for commercial perovskite solar modules. This approach distinguishes itself from the "traditional" recycling methods previously demonstrated in perovskite literature by allowing direct reuse of bulk materials with high environmental impact. Thus, such a remanufacturing strategy becomes even more favorable than recycling, and it allows us to save up to 33% of the module's global warming potential. Remarkably, this process most likely can be universally applied to other PSC architectures, particularly n-i-p-based architectures that rely on inorganic metal oxide layers deposited on glass substrates. Finally, we demonstrate that the CO2-footprint of these remanufactured devices can become less than 30 g/kWh, which is the value for state-of-the-art c-Si PV modules, and can even reach 15 g/kWh assuming a similar lifetime.

Cross-sectional profile of photocarrier mobility in thin-film solar cells via multimolecular recombination and charge extraction by linearly increasing voltage (cs-p-CELIV)

The ability to spatially resolve the carrier mobility profile along the cross section of micrometer-thin solar cells is vital, both for fundamental studies in photovoltaics and as quality control for reproducibly obtaining high conversion efficiencies in commercial solar cell modules. Presently, no technique capable of such an endeavor is available to the best of our knowledge. Here, we introduce a novel method capable of profiling the carrier mobility along the z axis in thin-film photovoltaics. Our setup is based on the integration of photogenerated charge extraction by linearly increasing voltage (p-CELIV) with a scanning confocal optical microscope (SCOM) toward a confocal and cross-sectional p-CELIV (cs-p-CELIV) system. As monomolecular recombination of excess carriers is the most frequent radiative pathway for electrons and holes in solar cells at low power density of illumination, while multimolecular recombination dominates at high power, enhanced multimolecular recombination occurs at the SCOM focal plane. Thus, the cs-p-CELIV signal provides enhanced information on the mobility of all of the cross-sectional layers except the focal plane. By scanning the focal plane along the z axis, the mobility profile can be derived. To demonstrate our technique, we use it to investigate the carrier mobility in three hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) solar cells. The mobility profiles obtained by cs-p-CELIV correlate well with well-known depletion layer effects and the H content profile in a-Si:H, which is measured independently. Our findings are in excellent agreement with models suggesting a critical role of Si–H bonding in locally determining the carrier mobility in a-Si:H.

Modelling and simulation of Λ-ridge concentrator system using commercial PV modules

This paper presents the Λ-ridge and V-trough concentrator system with low concentration ratio applicable in independent power supply systems (e.g. chalets, road signs, traffic lights, street lamps, industrial cameras, CCTV), of an outpower not exceeding 500W. Actual area of photovoltaic modules, which doesn’t exceed 3m2 constitutes important parameter in this kind of construction. Small external dimensions and relatively light weight are the crucial principles of constructing Λ-ridge concentrator system. The performance of the system and the amount of energy produced constitute key factors for such restrictions. A series of simulations was conducted enabling evaluation of the efficiency of the presented systems depending on their technical parameters and weather conditions.

Modelling of Photovoltaic Module

This paper proposes a review of the main characteristics and parameters that have to considered modelling a photovoltaic module. For the study it will be left from the photovoltaic cell, fundamental element of the conversion of light to electrical current. Also, a photovoltaic model using Matlab, which can be representative of PV cell and module, is presented. The created model has been based on previous studies. With the information of those previous models, curves IV and PV have been calculated comparing the results to each other. Also, the MPP of all the models has been calculated. Finally, the model has been validated with experimental data of a commercial PV module, Mitsubishi PV-TD1185MF5.

Extraction of single diode PV cell/module model parameters using a hybrid BMO approach with Lambert's W function

The accurate estimation of photovoltaic (PV) system parameters is crucial for effective simulation. Evaluation, modelling, and control of solar energy systems. The performance of photovoltaic installations is significantly influenced by the variability of model parameters and the difficulties in accessing them. As a result, the continuous objective is to consistently strive to search for and identify these parameters. This study proposes a hybrid algorithm that combines Bird Mating Optimiser algorithm with Lambert W-function (LBMO) with Wang's analytical method called (WLBMO) to optimise the parameters of the single diode model (SDM). The algorithm utilises a fast and precise iterative method for extracting I0 and Iph , and a Bird Mating Optimiser with Lambert W-function for extracting α, Rsh and Rs . The effectiveness of the proposed method is evaluated on the RTC solar cell and three commercial photovoltaic models. The specific results demonstrate the superior performance of our proposed WLBMO algorithm compared to known alternatives. For the R.T.C. France solar cell's single diode model, WLBMO achieves the smallest RMSE of 9.8630E-04, and similarly for the PWP201 model, yielding a low RMSE of 2.3845E-03. Comparative analysis, including Wang and LBMO, further validates our approach. Additionally, WLBMO excels among other methods for the STM6-120/36 commercial PV module, with a lowest RMSE of 1.7599E-03 and an exceptional minimum power error of 3.2270E-05. Similarly, for the KC200GT model, our method produces the smallest RMSE of 4.7569E-03. These consistent findings affirm the accuracy and efficacy of our WLBMO algorithm for PV model parameter estimation, emphasising its capacity to achieve significant error rate reductions of 92.856%, 1.147%, 49.732%, and 89.221% for the R.T.C France solar cell, Photowatt-PWP201, STM6-40/36, and KC200GT modules, respectively, and highlighting its pivotal role in optimising solutions.

Comparative analysis of numerical models of plate-fin heat sinks with forced convection for thermoelectric energy generation

Plate-fin heat sinks under forced convection are economical dissipaters employed in a wide variety of sectors. These types of heat sinks are commonly used in power generation by means of commercial thermoelectric generator modules. The design of the heat sink is a key factor in these power generation systems since it greatly affects the efficiency of the direct conversion from heat into electrical energy. Here, we analyse several numerical models of plate-fin heat sinks under forced convection with and without air flow bypass. The predictions of both hydraulic and thermal parts of these models are compared with our own experimental data. Results reveal that Lindstedt and Karvinen model (2012) is the more accurate one, with discrepancies with respect to measurements below 12% for most of the cases studied.

Experimental Analysis of Weather Condition Effects on Photovoltaic Systems’ Performance: A Jordan Case Study

Energy generation and economic development are closely linked, with energy playing a pivotal role in wealth creation. However, the finite nature of fossil fuel resources and associated environmental challenges has emphasized the need for sustainable energy alternatives based on renewable sources. Among these alternatives, photovoltaic (PV) systems hold significant potential for fostering a sustainable energy system. Despite ongoing material research, achieving a major breakthrough in enhancing the conversion efficiency of commercial PV modules remains a challenge. To optimize PV system yield, installation must consider geographic location and design factors. PV modules often yield different results compared to manufacturer specifications due to factors such as high temperatures, dust, and arid to semiarid climates. Therefore, it is crucial to conduct outdoor testing and characterization of PV modules tailored to specific locations, such as Jordan, to maximize system performance. This research aims to examine the impact of ambient temperature, dust accumulation, and solar irradiance intensity on PV system performance in Jordan, providing valuable insights through monitoring power output variations. The findings will contribute to improving PV system efficiency in Jordan’s unique climate and aid manufacturers in developing innovative PV applications. The collected data includes solar radiation, temperature, voltage, current, and output power. The results confirm that the Azraq site is a better location when compared to Mafraq based on the possibility of generated more output power using a PV system.

Comparison of Commercial TOPCon PV Modules in Accelerated Aging Tests

Comparison of Commercial TOPCon PV Modules in Accelerated Aging Tests