Commercial Honey Research Articles

Physicochemical and Microbiological Analysis of Stingless Bees Honey Collected from Local Market in Malaysia

The growing demand for honey in the market has led to the occurrence of the tampering honey with foreign substances and increases the production of artificial honey. Due to this concern, this study works on the physicochemical and microbial characterization of stingless bee honey. The physicochemical analysis showed that the honey possessed pH (2.51–3.26), free acidity (121.1 to 318.7 meq/kg), moisture (19.4–30.9%), electrical conductivity (0.33–0.69 mS/cm), ash content (2.75–4.31 g/100g), Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) content (35.4 to 461.7 mg/kg) and diastase activity (2.71 to 6.11 DN). Also, sugar profile of honey showed that the honey contained fructose (15.03–32.52 g/100g), glucose (12.17–34.55 g/100g) and sucrose (0.01–7.29 g/100g). The harvested honey, H1, and H2 have the highest potential to become an antibacterial agent to treat disease compared to commercial honey samples because they were active against Gram-negative bacteria. All analyzed samples were within the maximum limit of the quality criteria set by the Malaysian Kelulut Standard and Codex Alimentarius except for free acidity, HMF, and Diastase Number. All the data obtained is vital in order to create a specific statute for stingless bees honey in Malaysia that may help to protect the consumer from purchasing adulterated honey.

In situ ionic liquid dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction combined with ultra high performance liquid chromatography for determination of neonicotinoid insecticides in honey samples.

An efficient in situ ionic liquid dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction followed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography was developed to determine four neonicotinoid insecticides in wild and commercial honey samples. In this method, a hydrophobic ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium hexafluorophosphate, formed by in situ reaction between potassium hexafluorophosphate and 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide in sample solution, was used as the extraction solvent. In comparison with the traditional dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction method, the developed method required no dispersive solvent. To achieve high extraction efficiency and enrichment factor, the effects of various experimental parameters were studied in detail. Under the optimized conditions, the limits of detection and quantification were in the ranges of 0.30-0.62 and 1.20-2.50μg/L, respectively. The method showed high enrichment factors (74-115) with the recoveries between 81.0 and 103.4%. The proposed method was finally applied to different wild and commercial honey samples.

Exploratory Monitoring of the Quality and Authenticity of Commercial Honey in Ecuador.

Honey is one of the oldest sweetening foods and has economic importance, making this product attractive to adulteration with cheap sugars. This can cause a critical problem in the honey industry and a possible health risk. The present work has the aim of evaluating the authenticity of honey commercialized in two different provinces of Ecuador (Pichincha and Loja) by performing physicochemical and spectroscopic analyses. For this study 25 samples were collected from different places and markets and characterized by water, sucrose, reducing sugars and electric conductivity measurement. Also, their Raman and Infrared (IR) spectra were recorded and analysed using a Principal Component Analysis (PCA) in order to verify the quality of the honeys. In addition, a screening of several pesticides was performed in order to verify possible chemical threats to human health and honey bees. It was found that 8 samples have a deviation from the Standard established parameters. Two of them have a high difference in the content of sucrose and reducing sugars, which are located deviated from all the other samples in the PCA of the applied vibrational spectroscopy (IR/Raman), shaping two clear clusters. The results show that Raman and IR spectroscopy is appropriate techniques for the quality control of honey and correlates well with the physicochemical analyses.

Stable carbon isotope ratios for organic acids in commercial honey samples

Stable carbon isotope ratios (δ13C) for glucose, fructose, disaccharides, trisaccharides, and organic acids in 116 commercial honey samples were measured by LC/IRMS. On the basis of EA/IRMS and LC/IRMS authenticity criteria, 39 of the samples were judged to have been adulterated. The δ13C values for organic acids from pure honey, reported here for the first time, ranged from −33.6 to −26.5‰. The mean Δδ13C (glucose–organic acids) value was +3.7 ± 0.9‰. Glucose and organic acid δ13C values were strongly correlated (R = 0.71, P < 0.001). Gluconic acid, the predominant organic acid in honey, has been reported to be produced via decomposition of glucose by bee glucose-oxidase and certain Gluconobacter spp. This fact was confirmed by isotope analysis.

Antimicrobial Activity of Agastache Honey and Characterization of Its Bioactive Compounds in Comparison With Important Commercial Honeys.

There is an urgent need for new effective antimicrobial agents since acquired resistance of bacteria to currently available agents is increasing. The antimicrobial activity of Mono-floral Agastache honey produced from Australian grown Agastache rugosa was compared with the activity of commercially available honeys derived from Leptospermum species and with Jarrah honey for activity against clinical and non-clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus (methicillin-susceptible and methicillin-resistant strains), Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for Agastache honey was in the range of 6–25% (w/v) for all species examined. The MICs for Leptospermum honeys were generally similar to those of Agastache honey, but MICs were higher for Super manuka and Jarrah honeys and lower for Tea tree honey. Staphylococci were more susceptible to all honeys than Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli. Pretreatment of honey with catalase increased the bacterial growth at MIC of Tea tree honey (35%), Super Manuka (15%), Jarrah honeys (12%), and Agastache honey (10%), indicating variable contributions of hydrogen peroxide to antimicrobial activity. Manuka and Jelly bush honeys retained their antimicrobial activity in the presence of catalase, indicating the presence of other antimicrobial compounds in the honey. An LC-MS/MS method was developed and used to identify possible antimicrobial phenolic compounds in Agastache honey and flowers, and five commercial honeys. The chemical markers characteristic of Agastache honey and honeys of Leptospermum origin were phenyllactic acid and methyl syringate. Overall, the bioactive compounds with antimicrobial and antioxidant activity in Agastache honey suggested a possible use for topical application and in wound care.

NMR assessment of European acacia honey origin and composition of EU-blend based on geographical floral markers

A geographical discrimination of honey is an important prerequisite for quality and authenticity control. Here, we present a method based on an NMR-metabolomic analysis of organic extracts for a geographical discrimination of commercial European acacia honeys found on the Italian market. All 234 analysed samples show the characteristic 1H NMR profile of acacia (Robinia pseudoacacia) honey. However, a PLS2-DA model revealed variations among production zones allowing the successful geographical differentiation with a 100% of overall correct classification rate. Moreover, a PLS2 model is able to predict the proportions in binary blends of Italian and Eastern European acacia honeys. The geographical distinction and the possibility to characterize the content of blends derive from different markers content originating from minor nectar contributions of the acacia-accompanying flora.

A Review on the Effect of Processing Temperature and Time duration on Commercial Honey Quality

A Review on the Effect of Processing Temperature and Time duration on Commercial Honey Quality

Pharmacological activities, chemical profile, and physicochemical properties of raw and commercial honey

Abstract This study was designed to evaluate and correlate the pharmacological, phytochemical, and physicochemical properties of raw unifloral Mauritian eucalyptus honey (EH) and a commercially available honey (CH). The pharmacological activity was evaluated in terms of antibacterial, antioxidant (nitric oxide scavenging), antielastase, antityrosinase, antimelanogenic, and anticancer activity (MCF-7 and HeLa cell toxicity). The presence of phytochemicals including alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, phenols, anthraquinones, and steroids were determined along with the total phenolic (TPC), total flavonoid (TFC), and tannin content (TC). Physicochemical properties including the pH, colour, total soluble solids, and density were also investigated. The results showed that EH displayed greater antibacterial, antioxidant, and anticancer activity against the MCF-7 cell line compared to CH, which also showed higher extracellular antimelanogenic activity. MH (IC50 = 532.75 μg/ml) displayed significantly greater scavenging activity than CH (IC50 = 647.6 μg/ml). To conclude, honey may be potentially exploited as complementary and alternative therapies for the management of infectious and chronic diseases.

Phenolic acids and flavonoids profiles of commercial honey from different floral sources and geographic sources

ABSTRACT Honey is a natural sweetener produced by honey bees from the secretions of plants. Honey is well-known for its nutritional and medicinal values since prehistoric times. In the present study, 40 honey samples were collected from supermarkets in China. These samples were produced in China and also imported from other countries. These samples were explored for the detection of 16 phenolic acids and 14 flavonoids by employing high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Among the phenolic compounds explored, gallic acid (phenolic acid) and chrysin (flavonoid) were found to be the most dominant phenolic compounds. The phenolic profile of honey samples was greatly influenced by geographical location and floral sources. The classification of honey samples collected from various regions and floral sources (unifloral and multi-floral) were carried out using linear discriminant analysis (LDA) and it was observed that certain phenolic compounds significantly contributed towards the classification of honey samples collected from various geographical origin and floral source. Thus, this systematic study provides a fundamental knowledge of honey quality for therapeutic product development.

Nutrition marketing of honey: chemical, microbiological, antioxidant and antimicrobial profile

Honey and all bee products have very good biological and chemical properties. They have been used in medicine for a long time. In our study we evaluated twenty polyfloral honey samples, the first ten were commercial honeys from a selected supermarkets with country of origin indicated "blend of EU and non-EU honeys" and represented imported honey. The second ten honeys were from a local beekeepers (Nitra region) and represented the Slovak origin. The aim of the study were to analyze chemical, microbiological, antioxidant, antimicrobial profile of honey and recommend marketing strategies for honey producers by applying nutrition marketing. From chemical point of view, the study examined mineral profile of honeys, antioxidant properties as antioxidant activity, total polyphenols, flavonoid and phenolic acid content and from microbiological view the study evaluated a total count bacteria, coliform bacteria and microscopic filamentous fungi. Results of minerals showed that the most dominant element in commercial honeys is sodium (30 mg.100g-1) followed by calcium, potassium, magnesium and phosphorus. Iron, arsenic and selenium are present only in trace amounts. In local honeys the most dominant element is potassium (84.181 mg.100g-1) followed by calcium, phosphorus, sulfur and magnesium. The presence of hazardous heavy metals (cadmium, lead and chrome) was not detected in either of the samples. Moreover, antioxidant activity determined by the DPPH method was slightly higher in local polyfloral honeys and vice versa the content of total polyphenol, flavonoid and the phenolic acid content was slightly higher in commercial polyfloral honeys. From the microbiological point of view, the total count of bacteria was found only in commercial polyfloral honeys while local honeys were without detectable microorganisms. The best antimicrobial activity was found against gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli in both concentrations of honeys, and the local honeys reached better antimicrobial activity. All in all, honey has very good biological properties and mineral composition which opens opportunities for beekeepers to apply nutrition marketing and target new segments of consumers, e.g. sportsmen, people in convalescence, consumers following healthier lifestyle or seeking functional food. Moreover, educating consumers from a nutritional point of view will foster daily intake of honey and will increase annual consumption of honey in the future.

Physicochemical, Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Properties of selected Portuguese Commercial Monofloral Honeys

The physicochemical, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of selected Portuguese commercial honeys have been characterized aiming at establishing correlations between honey bioactivity and the physicochemical descriptors. All honey samples met the European regulations on honey quality criteria, including moisture and sugar content, free acidity, diastase activity, electrical conductivity, ashes, hydroxymethylfurfural and proline content. Antioxidant activity was evaluated based on phenolic and flavonoid content, 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and oxygen radical antioxidant capacity (ORAC) assays. The honeys showed antibacterial and antifungal activity with minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) between 6.25–25% (w/v) and minimum fungicidal concentrations (MFC) in the range 12.5–50% (w/v), respectively. The bioactivity and physicochemical parameters of honey samples were correlated and depended on the honey floral source. The darkest honey, i.e. heather honey, showed the highest antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, which can be attributed to its higher phenolic, flavonoid and protein content.

Genetic Diversity in the Progeny of Commercial Australian Queen Honey Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae) Produced in Autumn and Early Spring.

Honey bee [Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae)] queens are polyandrous, mating with an average 12 males (drones). Polyandry has been shown to confer benefits to queens and the colonies they head, including avoidance of inviable brood that can arise via sex locus homozygosity, increased resilience to pests and pathogens, and increased survival and productivity, leading to improved colony-level fitness. Queens with an effective mating frequency (ke) greater than 7 are considered adequately mated, whereas queens that fall below this threshold head colonies that have increased likelihood of failure and may be less productive for beekeepers. We determined ke in queens produced in early Spring and Autumn by five Australian commercial queen producers to determine whether the queens they produced were suitably mated. Drone populations are low at these times of year, and therefore, there is an increased risk that queens would fall below the ke > 7 threshold. We found that 33.8% of Autumn-produced queens did not meet the threshold, whereas 93.8% of Spring queens were adequately mated. The number of colonies contributing drones to the mating pool was similarly high in both seasons, suggesting that although many colonies have drones, their numbers may be decreased in Autumn and management strategies may be required to boost drone numbers at this time. Finally, queens had similar levels of homozygosity to workers, and inbreeding coefficients were very low, suggesting that inbreeding is not a problem.

Authenticity and geographic origin of global honeys determined using carbon isotope ratios and trace elements

Honey is the world’s third most adulterated food. The addition of cane sugar or corn syrup and the mislabelling of geographic origin are common fraudulent practices in honey markets. This study examined 100 honey samples from Australia (mainland and Tasmania) along with 18 other countries covering Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania. Carbon isotopic analyses of honey and protein showed that 27% of commercial honey samples tested were of questionable authenticity. The remaining 69 authentic samples were subject to trace element analysis for geographic determination. One-way ANOVA analysis showed a statistical difference (p < 0.05) in trace element concentrations of honey from Australian regions and different continents. Principal component analysis (PCA) and canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) coupled with C5.0 classification modelling of honey carbon isotopes and trace element concentrations showed distinct clusters according to their geographic origin. The C5.0 model revealed trace elements Sr, P, Mn and K can be used to differentiate honey according to its geographic origin. The findings show the common and prevalent issues of honey authenticity and the mislabelling of its geographic origin can be identified using a combination of stable carbon isotopes and trace element concentrations.

Wild, native bees and managed honey bees benefit from similar agricultural land uses

Although both managed and unmanaged bees are important pollinators of crops and wild plants, efforts to address questions about landscapes that best support pollinators often focus on either wild pollinators or honey bees. This study examined if there was concordance between the success of wild bee communities and managed honey bee colonies at sites varying in floral availability and disturbance level in a predominantly agricultural landscape. We also determined which agricultural land uses best supported wild bee communities. The study area in the state of North Dakota in Northern Great Plains in North America is home to understudied native bee communities as well as over ¼ of U.S. commercial honey bee colonies during the summer months. There is an assumption that honey bees can do well in agricultural areas but that wild bees need natural areas to thrive. We compared wild bee community success with health and survival of managed honey bees (data obtained from a related study) at six apiary locations over three years. We examined wild bee communities and surrounding land uses at 18 locations, three of which were spatially associated with each of six apiary locations. Wild bee abundance and species diversity were positively correlated with honey production, a measure of honey bee success, indicating that locations supporting successful honey bee colonies also supported successful wild bee communities. Grasslands, bee-forage crops, wooded areas, and wetlands were associated with increased abundance, species diversity, or functional diversity of wild bee communities. Crops not providing forage for bees, predominantly soybean, corn, and wheat, were associated with decreased functional diversity, decreased above-ground nesting bees and bees with shorter active season durations, and decreased honey bee survival. Pollinator conservation efforts retaining and enhancing grasslands, wooded areas, wetlands, and crops providing bee forage will likely support the growth, reproduction, and survival of diverse wild bee communities and the success of managed honey bees in areas dominated by intensive agriculture.

Mineral profile as a potential parameter for verifying the authenticity of bracatinga honeydew honeys

The increasing demand for honeydew honeys by consumers has raised concerns regarding the authenticity of this product. Therefore, the aim of this study was to develop a classification model (Classification and Regression Tree) to differentiate Mimosa scabrella Bentham (bracatinga) honeydew honeys from blossom honeys. The model was then used to verify the authenticity of commercial samples of honeydew honey. A total of 67 honey samples were analyzed, including 13 bracatinga honeydew honeys, 20 blossom honeys, seven commercial bracatinga honeydew honeys and 27 bracatinga honeydew honeys blended (adulterated) with blossom honey (5, 15 and 25% of blossom honey). In the classification model developed clear parameters were established that characterized each group of honey and with its application all honeydew and blossom samples were correctly classified. Only two samples of adulterated honeydew honey were misclassified. Therefore, the proposed classification model shows promising perspectives for its application, aimed at improving authenticity verification and fraud detection with regard to bracatinga honeydew honeys.

Determination of carbon isotope ratios for honey samples by means of a liquid chromatography/isotope ratio mass spectrometry system coupled with a post-column pump.

Liquid chromatography/isotope ratio mass spectrometry (LC/IRMS) has been used to authenticate and trace products such as honey, wine, and lemon juice, and compounds such as caffeine and pesticides. However, LC/IRMS has several disadvantages, including the high cost of the CO2 membrane and blocking by solidified sodium persulfate. Here, we developed an improved system for determining carbon isotope ratios using LC/IRMS. The main improvement was the use of a post-column pump. Using the improved system, we determined δ13 C values for glucose with high accuracy and precision (0.1‰ and 0.1‰, respectively; n=3). The glucose, fructose, disaccharide, trisaccharide, and organic acid constituents of honey samples were analyzed using LC/IRMS. The δ13 C values for glucose, fructose, disaccharides, trisaccharides, and organic acids ranged from -27.0 to -24.2‰, -26.8 to -24.0‰, -28.8 to -24.0‰, -27.8 to -22.8‰, and-30.6 to -27.4‰, respectively. The analysis time was a third to a half of that required for analysis by previously reported methods. The column flow rate could be arbitrarily adjusted with the post-column pump. We applied the improved method to 26 commercial honey samples. Our results can be expected to be useful for other researchers who use LC/IRMS.

The Antibacterial Effect In Vitro of Honey Derived from Various Danish Flora.

The mechanism behind the biologic actions of honey as a wound remedy has been intensively studied; however, there is no published data regarding any antibacterial effect of honey derived from Danish flora. We surveyed 11 honeys of various Danish floral sources for their antibacterial activity and compared them to a culinary processed commercial honey (Jakobsens) and a raw and a medical grade Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) honey using the agar-well diffusion method. We tested the effect on three gram-positive bacteria (two strains of Staphylococcus aureus and one strain of Staphylococcus epidermidis) and two gram-negative bacteria (Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli). All samples, except the commercial honey, exhibited antibacterial activity, and samples derived from Water Mint (Mentha aquatica), Organic 2 (mixed organic flora), and Linden (Tilia cordata) honey had consistent effects on all bacteria tested and showed greater effect than medical grade and raw Manuka (L. scoparium) honey. The content of methylglyoxal was low in the Danish honey (< 2 μg/mL) and significantly (p<0.05) higher in both the raw and the medical grade Manuka (L. scoparium) honey, where the concentrations were, respectively, 6.29 μg/mL and 54.33 μg/mL. The antibacterial effect of Danish honeys was mostly due to hydrogen peroxide. We conclude that honeys derived from Danish flora possess antibacterial effect, probably by a hurdle effect of viscosity, osmolality, acidity, bioactive peptides, and most importantly the content of hydrogen peroxide. These findings indicate that honeys of various Danish floral sources may have clinical potential, although further studies are necessary to elucidate this in order to determine whether the results of our in vitro experiments also apply to a clinical setting.

Development and validation of ultra high performance-liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry based methods for the determination of neonicotinoid insecticides in honey

In this study, the feasibility of two sample treatments has been evaluated for the determination of seven neonicotinoid insecticides in honey from different botanical origins using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC–MS/MS). A solid phase extraction with a polymeric sorbent (Strata® X) is proposed for analyzing dark honeys, while a QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe) approach is recommended for light honeys. Chromatographic analysis (6 min) was performed on a core-shell column (Kinetex® EVO C18). The proposed methods were fully validated using two different MS/MS systems: quadrupole-time-of-flight and triple quadrupole. The results showed that the best overall analytical performance was achieved using triple quadrupole, mainly due to its better sensitivity and the reduced influence of the matrix onto the analyte signals. The methods developed were applied to the analysis of commercial honey samples from different regions of Spain, as well as from experimental apiaries.

Comparison of the effect of natural and commercial honey on the growth and Antibiotic sensitivity of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Comparison of the effect of natural and commercial honey on the growth and Antibiotic sensitivity of Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pollen analysis of Australian honey.

Pollen analysis is widely used to verify the geographic origin of honeys, but has never been employed in Australia. In this study, we analysed the pollen content of 173 unblended honey samples sourced from most of the commercial honey producing regions in southern Australia. Southern Australian vegetation is dominated by Eucalyptus (Myrtaceae) forests and, as expected, most Australian honeys are palynologically dominated by Eucalyptus, while other important components include Myrtaceae taxa such as Corymbia/Angophora and the tribe Leptospermeae; plus Brassicaceae, Echium, Macadamia, and Acacia. An important feature of the honeys is the number of Myrtaceae pollen morphotypes per sample, which is generally high (mean = 4.6) compared to honeys produced outside of Australia, including Eucalyptus honeys produced in the Mediterranean region, and honeys produced in South America, which has its own rich indigenous Myrtaceae flora. In the latter regions, the number of Myrtaceae morphotypes is apparently generally ≤2. A high number of Myrtaceae morphotypes may be a feasible criterion for authenticating the origin of Australian honeys, since most Australian honey is produced by honey bees mainly working indigenous floral resources. Myrtaceae morphotype diversity is a convenient melissopalynological measure that could be applied even where detailed knowledge of the pollen morphology of the many component genera and species is absent. Palynological criteria developed in Europe for authenticating Eucalyptus honeys should not be relied upon for Australian honeys, since those criteria are not based on samples of Australian honey.