Abstract
Honey is the world’s third most adulterated food. The addition of cane sugar or corn syrup and the mislabelling of geographic origin are common fraudulent practices in honey markets. This study examined 100 honey samples from Australia (mainland and Tasmania) along with 18 other countries covering Africa, Asia, Europe, North America and Oceania. Carbon isotopic analyses of honey and protein showed that 27% of commercial honey samples tested were of questionable authenticity. The remaining 69 authentic samples were subject to trace element analysis for geographic determination. One-way ANOVA analysis showed a statistical difference (p < 0.05) in trace element concentrations of honey from Australian regions and different continents. Principal component analysis (PCA) and canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) coupled with C5.0 classification modelling of honey carbon isotopes and trace element concentrations showed distinct clusters according to their geographic origin. The C5.0 model revealed trace elements Sr, P, Mn and K can be used to differentiate honey according to its geographic origin. The findings show the common and prevalent issues of honey authenticity and the mislabelling of its geographic origin can be identified using a combination of stable carbon isotopes and trace element concentrations.
Highlights
Genuine pure honey is classified as a natural product produced entirely by bees
Five raw honey samples were collected from Sydney (New South Wales) and Calliope (Queensland) hives, to: (a) demonstrate that they matched the AOAC criteria for δ13C in pure honey, its protein and C-4 sugar and (b) benchmark δ13C and C-4 sugar values measured in 95 commercial honeys
The 16 trace element concentrations coupled with δ13C values in bulk honey and its protein were used to determine the geographic origin of the honey using Principal component analysis (PCA) and canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) statistical analysis
Summary
Genuine pure honey is classified as a natural product produced entirely by bees. The annual production of manuka honey in New Zealand is only 1,700 tons[4]. It is estimated that as much as 10,000 tons of New Zealand manuka honey is sold globally each year[4]. Corn syrup and sugar cane, both a cheaper sugar source than honey, are added commonly to honey to increase product volume, which is traded as a genuine pure honey[7]. Corn syrup and sugar cane are sourced from C-4 plants with the produced sugars reflecting their original carbon www.nature.com/scientificreports/. Sugar syrups produced by the C-4 metabolic pathway exhibit a 13C/12C ratio (expressed as δ13C) that differs from sugars derived from the C-3 metabolic pathway (−10‰ to −20‰ for C-4 plants, and −22‰ to −33‰ for C-3 plants)[8,9]
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