Comfortable Housing Research Articles

Improvement of organizational and technological design of low-rise residential buildings with consumption of fuel and energy resources

In recent years, there has been an active growth in low-rise housing construction in Russia. This trend is explained by the state policy, which is aimed at developing this sector in order to increase accessibility for the population and provide comfortable housing. In addition, the relevance of low-rise housing construction is evidenced by the need of the population in the natural environment, as well as the possibility of living in separate houses. Along with individual construction, the most popular is low-rise housing development in the form of organized residential settlements (“cottage village”) with a developed communal, transport and social infrastructure. The regulations define the requirements to ensure the efficient and rational use of fuel and energy resources. This confirms the need to increase energy savings also in the sector of low-rise housing construction.
 The article presents the classification of energy consumption by functional purpose in the construction of low-rise residential buildings, identifies the main groups of energy consumers “machines and mechanisms”, “temporary infrastructure of the construction site” for complex low-rise residential buildings and considers an algorithm for calculating the costs of fuel and energy resources for these groups. It is proposed to include forms of documents for calculation, accounting and control of fuel and energy resources in organizational and technological documentation. This approach will allow you to choose energy-efficient construction technologies at the design stage and keep track of energy consumption during the construction of buildings.

Фінансовий стан комунальних підприємств і напрями його покращення

Annotation. Introduction. One of the key tasks of the formation of a socially oriented economy is to ensure a high level and quality of life of the population, which implies the satisfaction of the most necessary needs of citizens in comfortable housing, energy, sanitary and technical, transport services, etc. Satisfaction of the above needs is possible only under the condition of the efficient and uninterrupted functioning of utilities, since the main task of the utilities is to provide the population with heat, water, gas, electricity and other services on which the comfort of housing, the state of human health, the constant mode of operation of enterprises, improvement districts, ecological state of settlements. The efficient operation of enterprises of communal ownership largely depends on their financial condition. Therefore, the study of the development and financial support of public utilities, the effectiveness of their activities is relevant, especially in the context of decentralization. Now, the problems of public utilities require much attention, among which their financial condition is significant. Purpose. The purpose of the work is to analyze and study the financial condition of utilities and develop proposals for its improvement. Results. The article considers, analyzes and compares such indicators of the financial condition of utility companies in some cities of Ukraine as: financial results, depreciation of fixed assets, return on assets, absolute liquidity ratio. Factors influencing the financial results of utilities have been identified. The main ways to improve the financial condition of utilities have been identified. Conclusions. According to the results of the analysis of their financial condition, the prevailing loss, high level of depreciation of fixed assets and low capital productivity of most enterprises in this industry have been determined. The reasons for this situation are the lack of effective directions of financial policy in this area, the imperfection of the regulatory framework and miscalculations in the management of financial resources. The current state of this industry gives grounds to talk about the need to improve the effectiveness of its state regulation in order to solve the basic problems of its socio-economic development.

HYGIENE REQUIREMENTS AS INDICATORS OF COMFORT OF HOUSING

The article considers the hygienic factors that form the comfort of living and affect the consumer properties of the living space. The processes of life of the population, its demographic and social reproduction are provided in the living environment, the material conditions of which determine the full value of these processes. Satisfaction of biological needs requires the availability of places for sleep, food, hygiene, recreation and is determined by the comfort and convenience of housing, adequate human connections with the natural environment. Regulation of hygienic factors of placement, planning, construction and operation of housing is a priority to ensure favorable living conditions. 
 Improving the quality of human life is directly related to solving an important socio-economic problem - providing housing in accordance with modern requirements, which take into account the material, social, spiritual, household needs and physical capabilities of man. Comfortable housing takes into account anthropometric parameters, protects from adverse weather conditions, provides an optimal microclimate, appropriate conditions for work and rest, raising children, various household processes and more. Optimal room performance ensures the absence of additional human energy costs for adaptation and adaptation to external conditions and includes heat and humidity, insolation, aeration, cleanliness and freshness of air, visual and noise comfort. To create a comfortable home, it is necessary to take into account all the components of hygienic requirements when using a set of architectural, planning, sanitary and organizational measures that provide the normative values of living comfort and do not adversely affect human health. Hygienic indicators have a direct impact on the level of quality of residential buildings, providing individual living comfort and overall social efficiency of the population, are the main purpose of optimizing the design and construction of residential buildings.

A model for thermal comfort assessment of naturally ventilated housing in the hot and dry tropical climate

PurposeA major challenge faced by West Africa is to find comfortable housing as a result of climate change and population growth. The climatic adaptation of buildings and their indoor environment become an essential condition for maintaining the health and productivity of the occupants. This paper proposes a model to assess the thermal comfort of naturally ventilated buildings in hot and dry climates in Burkina Faso.Design/methodology/approachThe proposed method is an adaptive model which relies on a combination of parameters such as the operative temperature, the new effective temperature and the basic parameters of thermal comfort. It consists in proposing the zones of thermal comfort on the diagram of the humid air for each climatic region.FindingsA decision-making tool is set up for evaluating the comfort of buildings to better consider the bio-climatic concept through a long-term comfort index. This comfort index is defined and is used to assess the degree of thermal discomfort for various types of housing. Two natural ventilation pilot buildings located in Ouagadougou were considered. The results show that the pilot building whose wall are is made of Earth blocks achieves 26.4% of thermal comfort while the building made of hollow cement block achieves 25.8% of thermal comfort.Originality/valueThe decision-making tool proposed in the present study allow building stakeholders to better and easily design, assess and improve the thermal environment of buildings.

Housing tenure and neighbourhood satisfaction in transitional urban China: Evidence from Changchun

Housing tenure is widely accepted as an influential factor on neighbourhood satisfaction in developed countries, where tenure choices are largely dichotomous (homeowner or renter) and are subject to market forces. However, in urban China, housing reforms in 1998 have allowed the intersection of both market and institutional forces and created diverse tenure types in the owner-occupied sector, which may have mixed effects on individuals' neighbourhood satisfaction. This study therefore examined neighbourhood satisfaction among owners of four housing tenure types—commodity housing, privatized danwei housing, Economic and Comfortable Housing, and resettlement housing—in Changchun, China. Data for this study came from a city-wide sample of 1,722 homeowners living in 93 neighbourhoods in Changchun and from the Census. The findings show that housing tenure type significantly affects neighbourhood satisfaction. Commodity housing owners are the most satisfied with the determinants of neighbourhood satisfaction resembling those in western countries. However, among the other three government-subsidized homeowner groups, neighbourhood satisfaction levels are affected, although to different extents, by institutional forces. Nuanced results suggest that institutional forces can promote certain owner groups’ neighbourhood satisfaction.

Influence of Socio-Economic Factors on the Development of the Home Mortgage Lending Market: The Case of the Vologda Region

Introduction. Mortgage lending plays an important role both for the banking system and for the country’s economy as a whole. In addition to the main function of providing people with comfortable housing, mortgage system development stimulates various areas of the country's economy and creates conditions conducive for investment. The purpose of the paper is to single out the factors that have a negative impact on the home mortgage lending market on the basis of the case study of the Vologda Region. Materials and methods. The study was carried out on the basis of the statistical database of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation, data from an integrated housing development institution DOM.RF and the territorial body of the Federal State Statistics Service in the Vologda Region, as well as the Numbeo database ratings. Methods of comparison and observation, analysis and synthesis were used to study the statistics of the main indicators of the home mortgage lending market. Results. The main factors influencing the home mortgage lending market have been identified: high loan interest rates, low wages (insolvency of the client), an increase in overdue debts, high prices in the housing market, etc. The author has put forward recommendations for the development of the home mortgage lending market. Discussion and Сonclusion. The study has shown that the mortgage market in the Vologda Region has considerable growth potential and that credit institutions should work more carefully with clients, which will help to reduce overdue debts. The research materials may be useful to researchers exploring the economic issue under consideration, as well as to commercial banks, regional and local authorities that can contribute to the development of mortgage lending.

Quantifying thermal comfort and carbon savings from energy-retrofits in social housing

Energy retrofits of existing multi-unit residential buildings (MURBs) are necessary to reduce their carbon emissions. While doing so there is an opportunity to influence the indoor environment. There is a need to quantify retrofit impacts across multiple dimensions, in terms of emissions and indoor environment, but also occupant perceptions. This paper characterizes carbon emissions and changes to indoor thermal conditions associated with energy-retrofits, such as replacement or updating of boilers, air-handling units, piping, valves, ducts, in-suite radiators and controls in seven social housing MURBs. MURBs are a building type opportune for energy-savings, and social housing residents may be more susceptible to heat stress. Using hygrothermal measurements taken inside a sample of apartments, modelled thermal comfort in most buildings showed statistically significant changes (in both directions), however nearly all of these changes were small (a less than 10% change in time comfortable). Despite being of the same vintage, construction and location, pairs of buildings with similar retrofits did not always result in the same direction of changes to thermal comfort, either modelled or surveyed. Within individual buildings, modelled thermal comfort does not always agree with occupant survey responses about their overall seasonal comfort. Finally, a life cycle assessment of retrofit measures results in an important savings of annual global warming potential. Annual natural gas savings are of a magnitude such that the operational carbon savings to embodied carbon investment range from 23:1 to 97:1. The associated energy cost savings does not, on average, offset the capital costs if only taking into account reduced energy for space heating. More generally, these results suggest mechanical retrofits of MURBs may save energy and carbon, but may not consistently improve residents’ thermal comfort. These results have practical relevance to those interested in the design and operation of low-carbon, comfortable housing, although it is unknown whether these findings are generalizable due to the small number of empirical results. Further studies are needed to understand the implications of different energy-retrofit actions and better understand the difference in perceptions.

STRUCTURAL MECHANISMS FOR IMPLEMENTING PROJECT MANAGEMENT IN GOVERNMENT BODIES

The article considers that the theory and methodology of project management and project management are currently the basis of public administration in all developed countries. Within this area, national and international standards have been approved, and the relevant legislative framework has been formed. In Kazakhstan, the project management paradigm is also adopted at the state level. An example of this is the adoption of priority national projects "Affordable and comfortable housing", "Health", "Quality education", "development of the agroindustrial complex", which" permeate " all levels of government. In other words, the field of management, called "project Management" and "Project management", in the context of the transition to an innovative development model, becomes the subject of close attention of Kazakhstan scientists, specialists and managers of both commercial organizations and Executive authorities at all levels of government. The reason for this is the global recognition of project management as a modern philosophy of effective and efficient management.

Жилищные условия населения в регионах Арктической зоны РФ, или квартирный вопрос в Российской Арктике

The issues of population providing with comfortable and affordable housing are relevant, because it has special social importance for the socio-economic development of Russia. The availability of housing is a person’s primary need, the satisfaction of which allows solving many social problems. Many problems to improve the living conditions of the population are solved within the framework of the state social policy, including the construction of social housing, housing subsidies, and the provision of preferential housing. The article considers issues related to improving the living conditions of the population in the Arctic regions of the Russian Federation. The paper aims to analyze the living conditions of the population in the Russian Arctic regions and to assess the needs and opportunities of the population in improving their housing conditions. Research methods are analysis and synthesis of statistical information, grouping, generalization, comparison, visualization. The infrastructure and improvement of the housing stock and the housing provision of the population in the Arctic regions of the Russian Federation were assessed. The possibilities and needs of the population of the Arctic regions in improving housing conditions are estimated. The authors said that the specificity and complexity of solving the problem of improving housing conditions in the Arctic regions is, first of all, to increasing capital costs for the construction and maintenance of the housing stock and the high cost of utilities for the population. A set of measures has been proposed for revitalizing and recovering from a pandemic domestic consumer demand of residents of the Arctic regions for improving housing conditions in the region of residence, as well as to create conditions for the consolidation of the population and the solution of social problems associated with housing.

Railway Architecture Along the Chinese Eastern Railway at the Beginning of the 20th Century

The article presents an analysis of railway complexes architecture in the settlements along the Binzhou Railway, Binsui Railway and the part of the high-speed line Hada Railway in Nothern China. That settlements was built by engineers from the Russian Empire in the early 20th century as stations of the Chinese Eastern railway (CER). To create all the conditions for the operating of the road, it was important not only to lay the track, but also to create infrastructure for servicing trains and ensuring a comfortable housing for the growing population. The tight construction time required the use of standard projects on the road. These buildings that have survived to this day have become objects of close attention of architectural historians and restorers. In a number of cities, former locomotive depots are being converted into museum spaces, old railway stations are being restored and included in tourist guides. This paper examines the history of construction of these objects in order to study the design features of utilitarian architecture on the territory of the CER during the construction of the Trans-Siberian railway. The analysis was based on the material obtained during the work with archival documents and drawings, as well as information obtained during field surveys of towns and cities on the railway line from Manchuria to Suifenhe and from Harbin to Dalian.

USE OF FUZZY PETRI NETWORKS FOR INFORMATION DESCRIPTION OF THE HOUSING ENVIRONMENT

The current state of comfort of an apartment building indicates many problems that exist in this area. First, there is a need for clear planning of comfortable housing, which should take into account the current socio – economic needs of the population. Secondly, there is no clear definition of comfort levels of an apartment building. Also, there is a need to identify the main factors that affect the life and comfort of the population. The article is based on two main areas of research. The first is to present a description of the information model of a hybrid intelligent system (GIS) for the comfort of the living environment of an apartment building. This tool allows you to model the effects of interaction, adaptation, which can be observed in the system when making decisions. The study also simulates complex systems based on the use of fuzzy Petri nets (FPs) to describe comfort. MP and its various types are one of the classes of models that provide an opportunity to present the structure of integrated organizational – information systems and complexes, as well as logical – temporal processes of system operation. Fuzzy Petri nets are divided into two parts. The first part describes the structure of the network, it is usually standard, the processes of initial marking and movement of markers on the network are determined by means and methods of fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic. The biggest area of their application is complex objects. Fuzzy logic is used to formalize fuzzy concepts in terms of semantics and provides efficient information processing along with clear data. With the help of this network the endurance of modeling systems and the optimality of its structure are investigated. To date, a large number of different types of Petri nets are known, which provide an opportunity to present the structure of the models in the absence of analytical representation of the influence of certain factors.

Clustering and its key features’ formation in construction

The purpose of this study is to substantiate the terminology “Clustering in construction” used in the regulation of construction organizations in a single system of interaction, taking into account the organizational and technological model of the new and existing buildings’ formation reliability. When implementing such projects, a set of joint tasks of the organizational and technological configuration is outlined and a number of indicators (comfortable housing with deliberately used free space; a combination of residential development with other objects of social, educational and entertainment infrastructure) are taken for consideration, as well as the basic principles of organizational and technological clustering criteria in construction. The most important scientific theory is that with the use of cluster modeling methods, competitiveness indicators can be increased, the range of material and technical base of construction production can be increased, and the investment durability of the construction organization can be formed. As a result of the study, the characteristic properties of the construction cluster were established for use in an integrated model.

ДОСЛІДЖЕННЯ ДИФЕРЕНЦІАЦІЇ ДОХОДІВ НАСЕЛЕННЯ У КРАЇНАХ ЄВРОПИ В ПЕРІОД ГЛОБАЛІЗАЦІЇ

The article is devoted to one of the most acute socio-economic problems of society – the differentiation of incomes. This phenomenon usually causes further inequality of access to basic public goods (quality health care, education, comfortable housing) and resources (financial, infrastructural, information, etc.). But at the same time, income inequality itself is a consequence of other types and manifestations of inequality. One of the seventeen sustainable development goals adopted by UN in 2015 is dedicated to overcoming inequality. The authors study the inequality of income distribution in European countries during globalization. They raise the issue of economic differentiation, assess the degree of convergence between the countries of Western and Eastern Europe in recent years. It is noted that differences exist not only between West and East, but also within subregions. Differentiation between member states and non-EU countries is particularly noticeable. The analysis of stratification of Europe on three indicators is carried out: GDP per capita, ratio 20:20 (quintile coefficient), Gini index. These inequalities are compared within and between countries. To be fair, the comparison is made in terms of two groups: large countries with a population of more than 1.5 million people, and countries with a population of less than 1.5 million people. The gap between the wealthy countries of Western Europe and the countries of Eastern Europe, whose residents are accustomed to receiving much lower incomes, stands out. The average national income of the adult population in non-EU European countries is only 34% of the European average. The countries with the lowest degree of inequality include the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Iceland. An analysis of inequality among European countries is needed to determine the best way to overcome income differentiation at the regional level. The authors conclude that, despite the gradual increase in income disparities, government policies based on the redistribution of income through taxes and transfers help Europe to remain the least unequal region of the world.

The implementation of a century foreign experience of affordable housing in construction management - a new format of economy in Russia

The article is devoted to the formation and history of the creation of a unique organizational model for managing the construction of affordable (social) housing on the example of the capital of Austria. The relevance of the functioning of such a model is indisputable, since at present, multiscale migration processes are taking place in large cities not only in the EU countries, but also in Russia. Moreover, migration takes place mainly from third world countries. In such conditions, there is an acute issue of providing the population with affordable, comfortable housing, without disturbing historical and architectural monuments. This model was formed and has been successfully operating in Vienna for over 100 years. Its uniqueness lies in the fact that the main role in it is played by the municipal authorities. Exactly they create social programs in the field of housing construction and funding them. At the same time, the rental housing market is becoming more comfortable and of high quality. The principles of social justice in the housing market for socially disadvantaged groups of the population are observed. This model of the functioning and formation of the affordable housing market in Vienna, according to the authors of the article, personifies the formation and functioning of the socio-economic cluster in the housing and communal sector. Of course, such a positive experience of providing the country's citizens with affordable and comfortable apartments is possible and necessary to apply in Russia.

ОСОБЕННОСТИ СТРОИТЕЛЬНОЙ ОТРАСЛИ В АРХАНГЕЛЬСКОЙ ОБЛАСТИ

The role of construction in the development of the economic system of the state, regardless of the level of development, population and other characteristics, can hardly be overestimated. Construction is one of the most important sectors of the economy, since no industry can function without new and reconstruction of existing facilities. The terminological analysis of the concept of “construction industry” has shown that domestic and foreign authors characterize this industry as an independent one, which is associated with the commissioning of new production and non-production facilities, which includes capital and current repairs of buildings and structures, as well as their reconstruction and restoration. An urgent problem for the population of Russia is the availability of housing. By Order No. 161-r of January 27, 2021, the Government approved the list of objects that should be financed under the federal Housing project of the state program “Providing affordable and comfortable housing and communal services to Citizens of the Russian Federation”. However, it should be noted that neither new programs to increase housing affordability, nor an increase in the pace of construction can fully solve the problem of housing shortage. In 2020, 1121.6 thousand new apartments with a total area of 82,2 million m2 were built in Russia at the expense of all sources of financing, which amounted to 100,2 % by 2019. In the North-Western Federal District of the Arkhangelsk region (without auth.) in 2020, it took the 5th place in terms of the total area of residential premises (351,8 thousand m2), which is 109,2 % by 2019. For the further development of the construction industry in the Arkhangelsk region due to the possible increase in the volume of construction of residential buildings, as well as due to the transition of construction companies to escrow accounts, it is necessary to reduce the cost of housing. The likely expectations from the introduction of escrow accounts are the impact on the volume of supply and the reduction of risks for buyers by transferring these risks to developers and banks.

Innovative modular greening system for modern buildings

For the sustainable development of the cities and auspicious environment for the life of future generations and the health of residents of the metropolis, it is very important to have not only comfortable housing, but also a healthy environment inside and outside it, and for this it is not at all necessary to live in rural areas. Today life in the city goes by at a very fast pace among the modern buildings. These are indispensable spaces for the life of every citizen, however, for the functioning and proper operation of the entire system of the human, it is necessary not only to move, but also to breathe the clear air. This is possible due to the plants in the urban environment, which are very few, and often the gas content and harmful impurities, together with CO2, exceed the maximum regulatory values in the air. The plants help to reduce them, and thus create a green environment for the population. Innovative modular greening systems for the roofs and facades of modern buildings, developed by the authors, possesses high manufacturability in comparison with competitors and help to the environment in general, which contributes to improving the health and longevity of people.

Регенерация территории жилой застройки с применением Стандарта комплексного развития на примере микрорайона Юбилейный г. Иркутска

The aim was to apply the target model of the Integrated Area Development Standard for the existing housing sector. The study was performed on the lot of the Yubileyny microdistrict of Irkutsk within the 22nd session of the International Baikal winter university of urban planning design. The research in-cluded an analysis of the territory using GIS tools, as well as field research and a series of interviews with representatives of different groups of residents. In addition, we developed a strategy for territorial transformation. The target model of the Integrated Area Development Standard was selected. Based on the research results, the applicability of the target model was proved for the established territory in the housing sector. The proposed method of territorial regeneration provides residents of the micro-district with safer and more comfortable housing, as well as promotes vitality in urban space, hence stopping its degradation. However, essential conditions need to be elaborated and ensured to imple-ment the strategy. It can be concluded that applying the tools of the Integrated Area Development Standard is appropriate when establishing strategies for the modernisation of both white land and built-up urban areas. At the same time, the measures proposed in the project can also be recommended for renovating the areas with mass prefabricated housing in other Russian cities.

МОЖЛИВОСТІ БУДІВНИЦТВА НАДМАЛИХ ОДНОРОДИННИХ БУДИНКІВ У ІСТОРИЧНОМУ СЕРЕДОВИЩІ МІСТ

Authors of the article consider two important aspects of the organization of the urban environment. The first, the possibility of compaction of buildings by the method of small singlefamily houses construction. And the second, possibility of preserving the architectural character of historic cities, which largely suffer from poorly designed and commercially attractive buildings. Ultra-small single-family houses have a list of important qualities: they provide the minimum household needs of residents, are privately owned, can meet the author's request. Economically, the construction of such houses is also profitable, because investment is achievable for Ukrainian realities. The second aspect is building planning. The very issue of the availability of ultra-small private buildings may be of interest to the city authorities, as they may also act as investors in the planned reorganization of existing neighbourhoods. For historic small towns, the imperfection of street space reorganization and large-scale housing construction is fatal. After all, violation of the ratio of height, parcelling of neighbourhoods, the general architectural character of the building leads to the loss of the object of protection - the most important aspect of the implementation of monument protection regulations. In addition to strengthening the documentary and regulatory status, the environmental aspect is important - what exactly a person sees while being in the protected area. The restoration process in Ukraine, in particular in the town of Zhovkva, is rather slow, as state priorities are not aimed at restoring cultural heritage. However, commercial activities and construction do not stop, and the regulation of these processes is deliberately not performed. How to get out of the situation when the town for development needs to meet the needs of residents in housing so as not to violate the general nature of the historic environment? Introduce modern approaches to building compaction: modernization of existing Soviet buildings, which were built within the historic area, and construction of small private houses. Modernization of the existing two-storey Soviet building compensates with small funds the modern needs of residents in comfortable housing, along with the possibility of reorganizing the street space to a more visually attractive. And the new construction is the construction of degraded and “gray” areas of the quarter building, so as to maintain the integrity of the street front and the prospects of reviewing the historic environment. For the town of Zhovkva it is potentially important to preserve the nature and quality of the urban environment. Areas that fall within the plan of regeneration and reconstruction of the historic environment will be developed taking into account the architectural and historical requirements, and those that are tangential and related can be developed in the direction of modern small-scale construction. For the town it is important not only the external frame, but also to ensure a comfortable and safe life of the residents themselves, whose modern needs are gradually moving to minimalism. These examples of buildings can be integrated into the fabric of the town of Zhovkva without spatial losses, otherwise - to prevent the consolidation and spread of street space. In addition to the new building, it is important for the town to modernize and reorganize the existing two-storey building, re-equip the existing housing stock. Redevelopment of existing Soviet buildings into private ones with the possibility of an extension will significantly improve the organization of the street environment and the quality of living. The advantages of such decisive action are the maintenance of the general nature of planning and historical parcelling of neighborhoods, as a result of the projected improvement of the urban environment.

Strategies of developers to housing supply within framework of project financing

The problem of providing comfortable and affordable housing for Russian citizens as a national goal has gained an impetus to solution after the introduction at the legislative level of project financing for housing construction using escrow accounts. The application of this new method of financing to the decision-making algorithm of a developer requires mathematical modeling of the economic ratios of the main indicators of the developer’s activities, taking into account the interests of other subjects in the housing construction sector: banks and population. The approach proposed by the authors is aimed primarily at expanding the supply in the housing market. We have formalized the possible sale strategies of the developer using a matrix approach in varying prices and the number of meters sold at different stages of construction, as well as interest rates for bank crediting, depending on the degree of escrow accounts accumulation. Testing the model has shown that developers should face serious problems related to increasing the cost of replenishing working capital for the construction process, which will inevitably be included in the price per square meter of housing and paid by the consumer (population). At the same time, banks become the main controllers and beneficiaries of the project financing. The model developed and tested by the authors will allow construction organizations to overcome the first difficulties of project financing application and competently and consistently make a choice of a strategy for offering housing to buyers, taking into account the variability of the economic parameters of all parties.

Housing Question for Scholars: From a Communal House to a Cooperative

This article examines the transition from the principle of abolishing the way of life structured around the individual (communal house) to socially stratified comfortable housing (a cooperative) in the second half of the 1920s and mid-1930s. Traditionally, housing cooperatives are interpreted as an instrument of proletarian social stratification. The author studies industrial housing cooperatives of scholars, characterising the specifics of their interaction with the local authorities, clarifying their social composition, and reconstructing the peculiarities underlying the functioning and financial discipline. Using the documentation of the State Archives of the Russian Federation, the author explores the history of several Moscow, Leningrad, and regional scholarly cooperatives. Also, the author separately considers the project of the House for academic staff in Omsk illustrating the publication with an architectural drawing of a typical layout of elite accommodation. The author concludes that a short period of housing cooperation, which unfolded during the first five-year plan, could contribute to the strengthening of social stratification (scholars were taken out of the framework of general civil norms for housing), stratification within the academic community (financially successful categories of scholars were singled out), reducing the severity of the housing problem in the provinces (due to the resettlement of visiting specialists). On the other hand, the brief period cannot be considered successful due to the instability of cooperatives for researchers in the system of working housing, the small number of cooperatives and efforts to increase their administrative enlargement, the vagueness of the boundaries between municipal and cooperative housing, and, finally, the financial burden of cooperatives for scholars (with high state credit costs).