Combustion Engine Research Articles

Hybrid energy management strategy based on neural networks robust to fluctuations in operational load

As global regulations on carbon neutrality tighten, the maritime industry, led by the IMO, has set a goal of achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. The electrification of ship propulsion systems is consequently accelerating. Hybrid electric propulsion ships, which combine internal combustion engines with auxiliary power sources, offer a practical solution by improving fuel efficiency and reducing emissions. However, heuristic or pre-trained energy management strategies designed for fixed conditions often struggle under fluctuating loads. This study addresses these limitations by proposing a hybrid energy management strategy that generates probabilistic operational profiles based on representative load data. A neural network controller, trained on nine global control solutions for newly generated operation cycles using Markov chain methods, maintains approximately 37% engine thermal efficiency even under variable loads. A performance validation showed that the proposed strategy resulted in 0.56% higher fuel consumption compared to the global solution, while still supporting implementation with each time step calculation taking approximately 0.072 ms, achieving near real-time performance. This small deviation highlights the trade-off between time-efficient applicability and near-optimal efficiency. By overcoming the limitations of fixed-condition strategies, this research offers a robust and adaptive approach for hybrid propulsion systems, making it suitable for immediate use in eco-friendly ships.

Study of the Combustion Characteristics of a Compression Ignition Engine Fueled with a Biogas–Hydrogen Mixture and Biodiesel

Increasing the use of renewable energy sources is essential to reduce the use of fossil fuels in internal combustion engines and to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. An experimental and numerical simulation study of the combustion process of a compression ignition engine was carried out by replacing fossil diesel with a dual fuel produced from renewable energy sources. In conventional dual-fuel applications, fossil diesel is used to initiate the combustion of natural gas or petroleum gas. In the present study, fossil diesel was replaced with advanced biodiesel – hydrotreated vegetable oil, and natural gas was replaced with biogas. In the experimental study, a gas mixture of 60% natural gas (by volume) and 40% carbon dioxide (by volume) was used to replicate the biogas while maintaining a 40%, 60%, and 80% gas energy share in the fuel. It was observed that using fossil diesel and biogas in the dual-fuel engine significantly slowed down the combustion process, which normally resulted in poorer energy performance. One way to compensate for the lack of energy (due to the presence of carbon dioxide) in the cylinder is to use a gas such as hydrogen, which has a high energy content. To analyze the effect of hydrogen on the dual-fuel combustion process, hydrogen gas was added to the replicated biogas at 10%, 20%, and 30% of the natural gas volume, maintaining the biogas at a (natural gas + hydrogen)-to-carbon dioxide volume ratio of 60%/40% and the expected gas energy share. The combustion process analysis, which was conducted using the AVL BOOST software (Austria), determined the heat release rate, temperature, and cylinder pressure rise in the dual-fuel operation with different renewable fuels and compared the results with those of fossil diesel. It was found that when the engine was operated at medium load and with the flammability of the biogas approaching the limit, the addition of hydrogen significantly improved the combustion characteristics of the dual-fuel engine.

Supplementary electrical generation from exhaust fumes of fuel combustion engines

Supplementary electrical generation from exhaust fumes of fuel combustion engines

Exploring Eco-Friendly Paths: A Comparative Study of Emissions in Medium Speed Diesel Engines Utilizing Alternative Fuels through Simulation Analysis

In the ship industry, emissions from marine activities have been shown to influence air quality and climate, with pollutants such as sulphur dioxide (SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and Carbon Dioxide (CO2). the International Maritime Organization (IMO) has implemented MARPOL Annex VI to reduce emissions from maritime activities, one of which is using alternative fuels. With the need of sustainable energy source of reducing emissions, the evaluation of alternative fuels becomes crucial. This study presents a comparative analysis of performance and environmental emissions from medium speed diesel engines utilizing different fuels, namely Biodiesel (B10-100), Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO), and Ultra Low Sulphur Fuel Oil (ULSFO) under various engine speed. the research was carried out using the Diesel-RK application with Internal Combustion Engine simulation that integrates thermodynamics and emission prediction algorithms to accurately represent the combustion process and subsequent pollutant formation. Parameters such as engine load, injection timing, and fuel properties are systematically varied to assess their impact on emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), sulfur dioxides (SO2), and carbon dioxide (CO2). Results indicate distinct performance and emission profiles for each fuel type in various engine speed. All Biodiesel and ULSFO demonstrates increasing NOₓ emissions compared to HFO with an average of 51.4%. However, they exhibit lower CO2 and SO2 compared to HFO with average of 3% for CO2 and 98.8% for SO2, this is due to higher oxygen content that can promote more efficient combustion, and both Biodiesel and ULSFO contains lower sulphur content.

On the importance of species immiscibility in mixing-layer dynamics at supercritical pressures

The mixing dynamics of injected propellants is a key factor in determining the ignition performance and combustion-instability response of rocket engines, internal combustion engines, and gas turbines. A key source of uncertainty in the prediction of phase-exchange dynamics is the immiscibility of the injected propellants at supercritical pressure conditions, which induces liquid/vapor phase separation and surface-tension dynamics. While experimental observations indicate the presence of liquid/vapor interfacial structures, this interfacial dynamics is typically neglected in numerical analyses. To address this issue, the objective of the present study is to systematically evaluate the importance of species immiscibility on the phase-exchange dynamics of cryogenic LOX/GH2 mixing layers at typical rocket engine injection conditions. This is accomplished by comparing simulations of (i) a recently developed interface-capturing Regularized-Interface Method (RIM) formulation, and (ii) the commonly employed Diffuse-Interface Method (DIM) formulation. Analysis shows that the interfacial dynamics significantly impact the atomization and mixing of the propellants in the near-injector region, which is not captured by the DIM formulation. The findings of this study extend to other immiscible injection systems, such as LOX/kerosene and hydrocarbon-fuel/air, thereby highlighting the importance of resolving species immiscibility in simulating high-pressure combustion engines.

A novel anode-sharing configuration to enhance the volumetric power density of short stack of proton exchange membrane fuel cells: An experimental and numerical simulation study

One goal for developing proton exchange membrane fuel cells is to increase the volumetric power density, enabling them to compete with internal combustion engines. Hence, this work proposes a novel anode-sharing configuration for a two-unit short stack of proton exchange membrane fuel cells, which effectively decreases the volume of the stack by utilizing one anode gas channel to supply hydrogen to both units. The feasibility and optimal operating conditions of this novel configuration have been validated by experiments. Three-dimensional numerical simulations reveal that alterations in stack configuration do not influence the distribution of reactants. Yet, the temperature in the anode-sharing short stack is relatively high due to the accumulated heat in the shared anode without cooling, which may cause membrane dehydration and affect overall performance. These negative effects can be offset by increasing relative humidity. Moreover, the thermal management can be significantly improved by enhancing cooling of the cathode when scaling up. A six-unit anode-sharing stack equipped with an enhanced cooling flow field has reduced the volume by 33.3 % and increased the volumetric power density by 40 %. The anode-sharing stack can achieve a volumetric power density up to 7 kW/L, a step closer to that of the internal combustion engines.

STUDY OF LOADER TRANSMISSION DYNAMICS WITH HIGH TORQUE STEP-ADJUSTABLE HYDROMOTOR-WHEELS

Goal. The purpose of the article is to analyze the dynamics of the hydraulic fluid power of the forklift transmission equipped with radial-piston high- torque multi-cycle hydraulic motors with a step change in working volume. Such a transmission is offered as a gearless one compared to the use of traditional transmissions with axial-piston hydraulic motors and gearboxes in front of the drive wheel hub. Research methodology. The traction-speed characteristic of a serial wheel loader is built taking into account the constant power of the drive internal combustion engine for rotation of the axial- piston reversible adjustable transmission pump. The dependence of the torque on the wheel hub of the loader depending on its speed was analyzed. The selection of a high-torque radial-piston hydraulic motor of multi-cycle action, which satisfies the parameters of the transmission in terms of torque and maximum rotation frequency and does not have an intermediate gearbox on the hub, has been made. To reduce the set power of the drive motor of the loader pump and fuel consumption, the hydraulic motors of the transmission are also equipped with a two-stage regulator for changing the working volume. Constructed block diagrams in the VisSim application program package for the solution of nonlinear differential equations for determining the speed of the loader, the pressure in the hydraulic drive and its useful power. The results. The analysis of oscillograms of dynamic processes in the hydraulic drive of the loader showed that by means of modeling the pump supply modes and step change of the working volume of the multi-cycle radial piston hydraulic motor, it is possible to detect extreme modes that lead to fluctuations in the speed and power of the loader, as well as pressure in the hydraulic drive.

Prognostic of lithium-ion batteries using a combination of physical modeling and hybrid multi-layer perceptron particle filter

With the European Union legislative push to phase out internal combustion engines by 2035, the demand for electric vehicles and efficient energy storage solutions, particularly lithium-ion batteries, is set to rise. Addressing this demand necessitates both the optimization of battery lifespan and the development of robust methodologies for real-time assessment of state of health and prediction of remaining useful life. This study introduces a novel hybrid grey-box prognostic and health management framework that combines a physical battery model with a multi-layer perceptron particle filter (MLP-PF) for real-time estimation of degradation parameters. The approach leverages an electrochemical model developed in Modelica to simulate battery voltage and track degradation parameters, thereby capturing the battery dynamic behavior over time. By integrating a data-driven MLP-PF, this method adapts the physical degradation parameters, ensuring ongoing and precise estimation of remaining useful life. Experimental validation, in terms of accuracy and confidence interval coverage, confirms the framework capability in prediction and relative quantification of uncertainties. These results underscore the framework practical utility for battery management systems in electric vehicles, providing an adaptable and accurate tool for decision-makers in battery maintenance and replacement.

Unsteady RANS simulations of under-expanded hydrogen jets for internal combustion engines

Hydrogen can be considered a suitable fuel for heavy-duty reciprocating internal combustion engines (ICEs) in order to limit carbon dioxide emissions. The low volumetric power density of hydrogen and the backfire problem suggest to employing the direct injection technology with relatively high nozzle pressure ratios (NPRs). This paper provides the analysis of under-expanded hydrogen jet dynamics using an open-source high-fidelity simulation tool based on the OpenFOAM framework. The unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (URANS) equations are solved by an efficient pressure-based solver for compressible flow. URANS equations are attractive for fast engineering analysis of 3D engine cycle and optimization, where large eddy simulation (LES) is too computationally expensive. The accuracy of the simulations is enhanced by employing the weighted essentially non-oscillatory (WENO) approach for the spatial discretization, considering schemes from second-order to fourth-order accuracy. Those schemes are embedded in a pressure-implicit with splitting of operators (PISO) algorithm, obtaining a very robust and accurate numerical method for compressible multi-species flows, which can be shared in an open access framework. Hydrogen injection in air is simulated, with several values of the NPR typical of direct injection ICE in the low-medium range, 8.5≤NPR≤30. The main features of the developing jet are analyzed, such as barrel shock dimensions, cone angle and hydrogen–air mixing. The results are validated with respect to experimental and LES data available in the recent literature, demonstrating the efficiency and the accuracy of the employed URANS approach and evaluating its limits.

Evaluation of the Degradation of Combustion Engine Valves

Evaluation of the Degradation of Combustion Engine Valves

Investigating the behavioural intention towards electric vehicle: A dual factor approach using Sweeney and Soutar's PERVAL scale and technology acceptance model

Promotion of electric vehicle (EV) remains an appropriate solution to alleviate the adversities of environmental pollution caused by the increasing use of internal combustion engine vehicles for transportation. Further, it remains a grave need to promote electric vehicles, as road transport accounts to 12% of carbon emissions. Therefore, institutions and researchers make multiple initiatives and efforts to transform the society in adopting electric vehicles. However, the market for electric vehicles falls short of government's intent to ensure 100 percent EVs on Indian roads before 2030. In view of this backdrop, as EV is in a nascent stage this research adopted Sweeney and Soutar's PERVAL scale and technology acceptance model to understand the role of perceived values that can develop behavioural intention towards electric vehicle. Using non-probability sampling procedure data was collected from 337 electric vehicle users in India. Data was analysed using co-variance based Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) approach to examine the direct relationships between independent and dependent variables. Additionally, using SEM approach the indirect relationships were examined using bootstrap samples, and regression was performed to test the moderation effect. The findings reveal that perceived ecological, functional, and economic values positively influenced perceived usefulness that finally contributes the behavioural intention towards electric vehicles. Personal innovativeness positively moderated the relation between perceived usefulness and perceived trust. In addition, perceived trust mediated the relationship between perceived usefulness and behavioural intention towards electric vehicle. The study conclusions will contribute to the electric vehicle literature, the knowledge towards electric vehicle acceptance and provide meaningful implications for practitioners. Accordingly, perceived values positively contributed to the electric vehicle literature and to the marketers and society.

Prediction of Pollutant Emissions from a Low-Speed Marine Engine Based on Harris Hawks Optimization and Lightgbm

With the rapid development of data science, machine learning has been widely applied to research on pollutant emission prediction in internal combustion engines due to its excellent responsiveness and generalization ability. This article introduces Lightgbm (LGB), which belongs to ensemble learning, to predict the pollutant emissions from a low-speed two-stroke marine engine. The dataset used to train LGB was derived from a one-dimensional performance simulation model of the engine, which was rigorously verified for its reliability by experimental data. To further improve the forecast performance of the LGB model, we used Harris Hawks Optimization (HHO) to automatically optimize the hyperparameters of the model, and finally, we analyzed the importance of the model features. The results show that changes in engine control parameters have significant influences on NOx and soot emissions from the engine, which can serve as the basis for the selection of the LGB model features; the LGB model was able to accurately predict pollutant concentrations from the engine with much higher accuracy than a single decision tree (DT) model; combining with HHO, the predictive ability of the LGB model was significantly improved, such as for the validation set prediction results, the mean absolute error (MAE) was reduced by about 20%, the mean squared error (MSE) was reduced by about 30%, and the coefficient of determination (R2) was increased by about 0.005; and the importance analysis of the model features indicated that the combustion condition of the fuel was highly correlated with the generation of the pollutants, and the fuel injection phases can be adjusted in practice to achieve highly efficient and low-emission processes of combustion. The results of this study can provide references for the development of a new generation of highly efficient and low-pollution marine engines.

Structure and Strength Optimization of the Bogdan ERCV27 Electric Garbage Truck Spatial Frame Under Static Loading

Taking into account the requirements to reduce the release of harmful emissions into the environment, the EU’s environmental standards when transitioning to the Euro 7 standard in 2025 will actually lead vehicles having to operate without producing emissions in all driving situations. Carmakers believe that the new, much stricter regulations will mark the end of the internal combustion engine era. For example, in 2030, the manufacturer SEAT will cease its activities, leaving behind the Cupra brand, which will be exclusively electric in the future. This trend will apply not only to private vehicles (passenger cars), but also to utility vehicles, which is the subject of our research, namely the spatial tubular frame in the Bogdan ERCV27 garbage truck, presented in the form of a solid model. The peculiarity of the studied model is the installation of a battery block behind the driver’s cabin, causing an additional load to be placed on the spatial frame of the garbage truck, which in terms of its architecture is more like the body of a bus. During the conditions involving various modes of operation of a full-scale Bogdan ERCV27 garbage truck sample, questions about the strength and uniformity of its load-bearing spatial frame inevitably arise, which are decisive, even at the stage of designing and preparing the technical documentation. The main static load mode, which, despite its name, also covers dynamic conditions, was modeled using the appropriate coefficient kd = 2.0. The maximum stresses on the model during the “bending” mode were 381.13 MPa before structure optimization and 270.5 MPa as a result of the improvement measures. The spatial frame mass was reduced by 4.13%. During the “torsion” mode, the maximum deformation values were 12.1–14.5 mm, which guarantees the normal operation of the aggregates and units of the truck.

Producing and Testing the Properties of Biodiesel Sourced from Hemp Oil

Organic matter is converted into a variety of fuels, including potential replacements for transport fuels. New sources of raw materials are being sought for their acquisition. One such raw material that is currently attracting a growing degree of attention is hemp. The objective of this study was to produce biodiesel from hemp oil to ascertain its selected properties and to compare them with the properties of biodiesel obtained from rapeseed oil and the properties of diesel fuel. A reactor designed for the non-industrial, local conversion of available raw materials into fatty acid esters was used for the manufacture of biodiesel. The properties of hemp oil biodiesel were evaluated in comparison with those of rapeseed oil biodiesel, with properties of diesel fuel, and with the requirements set forth in the EN 14214 standard, pertaining to the specification of fatty acid methyl esters for utilization in compression-ignition internal combustion engines. The kinematic viscosity value of the hemp oil biodiesel yielded just below the upper limit defined in the standard. Furthermore, research has demonstrated that such biodiesel contains a considerable proportion of esters of linoleic and linolenic acids, which are susceptible to oxidation. The content of linolenic acid ester in esters produced from hemp oil is clearly higher than the content of this ester in esters obtained from rapeseed oil. This higher content contributes to the high value of the iodine number, significantly exceeding the standard requirements. The remaining designated properties of hemp oil biodiesel are in accordance with the requirements laid down in the standard and exhibit similarities to those of rapeseed oil biodiesel. Further research is recommended to enhance the characteristics of hemp oil biodiesel and its utilization in compression-ignition engines.

Transitioning to Electric UTVs: Implications for Assembly Tooling

This case report explores the UTVs (utility terrain vehicles) transition from internal combustion engines to electric drive and how the shift will impact the assembly tooling industry. A multiple-case study at manufacturing plants was complemented by an exploratory survey with key stakeholders in the industry. The findings showed that the transition to electric drive is still in its infancy and is likely to accelerate soon. Electric vehicles were generally found to contain fewer components and thus have fewer applications for tightening tools in their assembly. Much of the difference comes from the fact that electric engines require far fewer tightening operations compared to internal combustion engines. However, the assembly of electric components and battery packs requires new advanced tooling solutions. When transitioning to electric drives, manufacturers were found to source their battery packs and electric engines most commonly from external suppliers. This can displace the tooling industry’s business within the segment. Several opportunities and challenges for assembly tool suppliers were identified. Firstly, the transition to electric drive will likely generate significant tooling needs on the manufacturers side. Electric vehicles tend to require more advanced tools and solutions, which likely will benefit premium tool suppliers with Industry 4.0 solutions. There are, however, long-term challenges as electric UTVs have fewer components and fewer tightenings in their assembly process. One long-term opportunity that could potentially offset the decline in tightenings within final assembly is battery pack assembly. This process does not only require a lot of advanced tightenings, but there are also opportunities for other joining techniques. Thus, the assembly tooling business’ biggest opportunities within the UTV industry are likely to shift from the vehicle’s final- to battery pack assembly.

Design and Implementation of the Python-Driven Digital Horn System: A Novel Approach for Electric Vehicle Sound Systems

Electric and hybrid vehicles are known for their significant reduction in road noise. However, concerns have emerged regarding their silent operation, potentially increasing risks for other road users. To mitigate this, the Acoustic Vehicle Alert System (AVAS) has been mandated by regulations such as R138 by UNECE in the USA and Europe. This regulation dictates the generation of sound in electric vehicles of categories M and N1 during normal, reverse, and forward motion without the internal combustion engine engaged. Compliance involves meeting specific sound requirements based on vehicle mode and condition. This paper introduces a Python-based approach to designing digital horn sounds, leveraging music theory and signal processing techniques to replace traditional mechanical horns in electric vehicles equipped with AVAS devices. The aim is to offer a practical and efficient means of generating digital horn sounds using this software. The software includes an application capable of producing and customizing horn sounds, with the HornSoundGeneratorGUI class providing a user-friendly interface built with the Tkinter library. To validate the digital horn produced sounds by the software and ensure compliance with AVAS regulations, comprehensive electrical and acoustic tests were conducted in a fully equipped quality laboratory. The results demonstrated that the sound levels achieved met the required 105–107 dB/2 m standard specified by the regulation.

Critical Review on Effect of CI Engine Performance and Emission from Nano Particle Blended Biodiesel Combustion at various fuel injection pressures

In recent years, Due to the depletion of petroleum reserves and rising environmental concerns, alternative fuels have attracted a lot of attention. This study investigates the combustion, emissions, and performance properties of diesel engines running on biodiesel-diesel blends. Recent developments in nanotechnology have made it possible to use fuel injection pressures and nanoparticle fuel additives in internal combustion engines. By adding nanoparticles to biodiesel-diesel blends, the amount of brake specific fuel is reduced. Additionally, nanoparticles have a high thermal conductivity, which improves combustion and brake performance . According to the reviews, NOx emissions increased while HC, CO, and PM emissions reduced. The results show that biodiesel and biodiesel blends as a fuel for CI engines might significantly enhance performance while reducing emissions by adding nanoparticles and fuel injection pressures.

Enhancing Engine Cylinder Heat Dissipation Capacity Through Direct Optimization (DO) Techniques

Internal combustion (IC) engines are used widely as the primary power source for automobiles of all types, cars, motorcycles, and trucks. Because of the high combustion temperatures involved in the operation, the excess heat is removed by means of extended fins that increase the surface area for adequate cooling. Significant improvement in the heat dissipation characteristics of the engine cylinder can be achieved by optimizing the design of these fins. The aim of this study is to evaluate the thermal performance of engine cylinder fins using an analytical system of finite element analysis (ANSYS FEA) software, using a direct optimization (DO) approach to identify optimal fin design. Analysis shows that fin length and width play critical roles in improving cooling efficiency, lowering the maximum temperature within the cylinder to 549.46 K and enhancing total heat flux to 7225.31 W/m2, which is a 25.87% increase from the generic design, capable of heating removal of 5740.22 W/m2. The current fin design is effective but could be improved in heat dissipation, mainly at fin tips. To optimize thermal performance while minimizing material costs, a balanced fin dimension is recommended. Alternative materials, transient heating analysis, and experimental verification may be examined in the future to achieve a total understanding of fin geometry and behavior under real operating conditions. These insights lay a foundation to accelerate cooling systems development in the automotive, aerospace, and heavy equipment industries, where efficient heat transfer is key for performance and long-term durability.

Biofuels and Their Blends—A Review of the Effect of Low Carbon Fuels on Engine Performance

Energy is an important aspect concerning global economic development and environmental conservation. Economic growth has been accompanied by extensive use of fossil fuels, resulting in significant emissions of greenhouse gases and other pollutants. Therefore, researchers have turned their attention to low/zero carbon fuels. Among these, biofuels have attracted wide attention due to their relatively low cost, clean combustion products and renewability. This article reviews the combustion, performance and emission characteristics of internal combustion (IC) engines fueled with biofuels categorized into three generations by their raw material sources. According to most research findings, biofuels generally exhibit poorer combustion performance in IC engines compared to fossil fuels due to their high viscosity and low lower heating value. However, these biofuels, characterized by a high oxygen content, facilitate more complete combustion and reduce emissions of CO, UHC and smoke, albeit increasing NOx emission and fuel consumption. Both thermal efficiency and brake power also tend to decrease, but various optimization strategies such as advanced combustion modes or injection control methods can partially compensate for these drawbacks. In conclusion, biofuels should be a promising low-carbon fuel for IC engines in the future.

Разработка ветроэнергетической установки, утилизирующей вторичные энергетические ресурсы энергообъектов морской инфраструктуры

Marine infrastructure facilities include various structures and structures that are necessary to ensure the functioning of maritime transport and other types of mandatory operations in the water space: passenger and cargo terminals, transshipment complexes, warehouses, infrastructure facilities for maintaining ships in working condition, heat supply systems, gas supply, water supply and power supply systems, necessary for the continuous provision of various processes of the port's vital activity. The issue of operation of the developed experimental design of a wind power plant (wind turbine) that recycles secondary energy resources of power facilities of marine infrastructure, when it is placed on the chimneys of boiler installations of port facilities, is considered. An experimental wind turbine is being developed that will use the secondary energy resources of the enterprise. Such a resource in port facilities may be the exhaust gases of a boiler house or a mini-CHP based on internal combustion engines, etc., the heat of which will be utilized in the proposed wind turbine to generate electricity to cover part of the needs of the energy facility. The introduction of wind power plants in port facilities represents an important strategic initiative with many advantages: energy independence and reduction of energy supply costs; elimination of sharp fluctuations in electricity prices, which may be caused by changes in prices for traditional energy carriers; reduction of greenhouse gas emissions; improvement of ports' public image, stimulation of economic development of the region. It is noted that some governments and international organizations offer financial support and incentive measures for projects on the introduction of renewable energy sources; wind turbines can act as a backup energy source, providing higher reliability of energy supply in case of disruptions in the main network, etc. All these measures for placing wind turbines on the chimneys of marine infrastructure power plants make it possible to increase the efficiency of energy generation from a generating plant in the port.