Combustion Engine Vehicles Research Articles

Adaptive fast charging methodology for commercial Li‐ion batteries based on the internal resistance spectrum

AbstractDevelopment of lithium‐ion batteries (LIBs) with high energy density has brought a promising future for the next generation of electric vehicles (EV). In order to make EVs more competitive with combustion engine vehicles, development of an effective fast charging technique is inevitable. However, improper employment of fast charging can damage the battery and bring safety hazards. Herein, industry based along with our proposed internal resistance (IR) based fast charging techniques were performed on commercial Panasonic NCR 18650B cylindrical batteries. To further investigate the fast charging impact and electrode degradation mechanisms, electrochemical analysis and material characterization techniques including EIS (electrochemical impedance spectroscopy), GITT (galvanostatic intermittent titration technique), SEM (scanning electron microscopy), and XRD (X‐ray diffraction) were implemented. Batteries that were cycled under industry based fast charging showed 78% increase in internal resistance after 120 cycles along with rapid capacity fading. Mechanical distortion of the battery case occurred around the 60th cycle for industry based fast charging. In contrast, IR based fast charged batteries showed 29.4% increase in internal resistance over 120 cycles. In addition, mechanical distortion was not observed and the relative capacity fading was on a moderate level. Furthermore, this work could pave the way for the optimization of fast charging techniques to secure the lifespan and safety of various types of lithium‐ion batteries.

Approach to increase flexibility in automobile body shops through component-integrated fixture functions

Due to shorter product life-cycles, increasing product customization and the co-existence of electric and combustion engine vehicles, variant flexibility is gaining importance in the automobile production. The automobile body shop is characterized by inflexible, rigid fixture systems dedicated to meet the geometrical requirements of specific body parts. Changes in part geometry or dimension require the development of new fixture systems, thus increasing product variety results in higher fixture costs. This paper presents an approach for a fixtureless body shop based on component-integrated fixture-functions, increasing variant flexibility and reducing fixture costs. The approach is implemented using a body part assembly of an electric vehicle.

Simulación del comportamiento térmico en exteriores urbanos correlacionando las variables de calor antropogénico vehicular y orientación

The complexity of the urban environment and its undeniable connection with the energy balance equation opens the doors for researchers to understand phenomena such as the Urban Heat Island (UHI). The least studied factor of the UHI is vehicular anthropogenic heat. Using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software, the aim is to understand the thermal environment within an urban canyon, based on two variables, the heat produced by the vehicle combustion engine and the orientation of the street (North - South and East -West). The analysis of the correlation of these variables is based on the information obtained from the simulation in different height strata, considering constant values such as direct radiation, diffuse radiation, emissivity and absorptivity of materials and a fixed temperature for the bonnet or hood of the car, altering the number of automotive vehicles and the orientation to examine the different patterns of the thermal profiles. The research opens the way to understand this phenomenon and be considered in simulations for the energy efficiency of buildings, since it directly impacts the facades of buildings and the determination of passive and active cooling techniques.

Numerical research on vortex tube separator for special vehicle engine inlet air filter

A two-stage inlet air filtration system used in the special vehicle combustion engine is presented. A comparative analysis of the filtration properties of return and vortex tube separators (VTS) was carried out. Factors determining the efficiency of vortex tube separators are presented. The aerosol filtration process in the cyclone was discussed. The decisive influence of the inertia force, and the drag force of the medium on cyclone efficiency was demonstrated. The impact of design factors and flowing aerosol on the separation efficiency, and pressure drop of cyclone flow was assessed using commercial Ansys Fluent engineering software. A Discrete Phase Model was used, which characterizes in that the particle trajectory is determined using Lagrange’a formulations. Real vortex tube separator geometry was used to build the cyclone model (VTS), which was acquired as a result of reverse-digital 3D scanning engineering. The developed numerical model verification was carried out on the results basis of numerical, and experimental tests of the vortex tube separator. Numerical and experimental separation efficiency tests and vortex tube separator pressure drop were carried out for different vortex tube separator inlet speeds in the range of 2.5 ÷ 15 m/s. A domestic substitute for AC fine polydisperse dust (PTC-D test dust) was used. In the numerical calculations the particle size distribution of PTC-D was taken into account using the Rosin-Rammler model. As a result of numerical tests, the characteristics of vortex tube separator separation efficiency are similar to those resulting from experimental tests.

Sectoral peak CO2 emission measurements and a long-term alternative CO2 mitigation roadmap: A case study of Yunnan, China

Abstract China has established national CO2 peak emission targets and launched a series of low-carbon pilot programs to tackle climate change. Research on regional peak CO2 emission targets and the establishment of mitigation roadmaps based on local characteristics is fundamental for achieving the national goals. This study analyzed the peak CO2 emission targets by applying the stochastic impacts by regression on population, affluence, and technology (STIRPAT) and long-range energy alternatives planning system (LEAP) models to data from Yunnan province, China. This study also simulated and measured the effectiveness of the CO2 abatement potential by decomposing the peak CO2 emissions for 14 subscenarios. The results showed that peak emissions will reach 200 Mt CO2e in Yunnan over a prolonged period from 2024 to 2028, and differences in the social-economic stages will result in different peak emissions from various sectors. Our research also found notable differences between different mitigation effects. Promoting hydro power, saving energy in the steel manufacturing and chemical sectors, employing highly efficient combustion engines in vehicles, developing public transport, and conserving urban residential energy should be considered as short-term primary actions. Clean-energy vehicles and saving energy in public buildings should be considered in the long term. Therefore, this study can provide a suitable reference to policymakers and stakeholders for identifying the most effective policy measures and actions for different sectors in low-carbon pilot planning programs.

The impact of ambitious fuel economy standards on the market uptake of electric vehicles and specific CO2 emissions

Fuel economy regulation is a powerful instrument to reduce CO2 emissions of vehicles. CO2 emissions from transport have to be dramatically reduced to reach ambitious CO2 targets, but fuel economy standards below 75 gCO2/km (72.8 MPG) cannot be reached with combustion engine vehicles but require plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs). However, the specific relationship between stringent fuel economy standards and PEV market share is unclear. Here, we analyse CO2 fleet targets in Europe where Regulation (EU) 2019/631 sets a target of 59.4 gCO2/km (90.9 MPG) in 2030. We use data of 3.2 million records with model-specific car sales in Europe from 2010 to 2016 to project future sales and CO2 emissions of all major vehicle manufacturers. We analyse the required PEV sales for these manufacturers to fulfill the CO2 targets and compare them to the manufacturers' announced sales targets. Our results demonstrate that regulation's target leads to PEV sales shares between 27 and 41% in 2030. The lower value is required if all manufacturers only sell BEV and the upper if only PHEV. In conclusion, ambitious CO2 fleet regulation leads to fast market diffusion of PEVs, but the current regulation is less ambitious than car maker targets in 2025.

Hybrid Fuzzified-PID Controller for non-linear Control Surfaces for DC Motor to Improve the Efficiency of Electric Battery Driven Vehicles

The paper intends to deliver a structure of speed-control for electric DC motor widely being used in the electric rechargeable-battery vehicles. Electric vehicles are the need of the hour due to increasing environmental concerns and the dependency on fuels and oils. So as to promote this hybrid and electric vehicle technology and ensure its sustenance, the Ministry of Heavy Industry and Public Enterprises in the Gazette of India on 13th of March, 2015 approved the Scheme for Faster adoption and manufacture of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicle in India referred as FAME-India under National Electric Mobility Mission (NEMM). This scheme intends to encourage the hybrid/electric motor driven vehicles in the market and also its manufacturing for the betterment of eco-system to be implemented over a period of six years till 2020. Electric-battery driven vehicle is sourced on the restricted electrical-energy delivered by the battery in circuit. Major contribution of this work is to propose control-strategy through Fuzzified-PID controller so that the performances of the electric vehicle is comparable to that of an internal combustion-engine vehicle. Feedback is the foundation of PID control. The target or the set point is compared with the resultant of the process. Then, correction is computed and applied for the difference identified. This procedure is carried on till the time recalculation is required. PID refers to the combined computation of proportional-integral-derivative. Controllers, in general do not apply all three mathematical functions. Maximum processes were being handled through the proportional-integral-terms. However, addition of derivative control for fine control plus to avoid overshoot are required. Following models: PID controller, hybrid Fuzzified-reasoning PID controllers for linear surfaces and non-linear control surfaces using n-D Lookup-Table data have been designed for a comparative study. It has been observed that hybrid model designed for non-linear control-surfaces provided better speed response and have zero steady state error. The simulation of these models is carried out using SIMULINK under varying state conditions.

Multi-objective vehicle optimization: Comparison of combustion engine, hybrid and electric powertrains

The use of optimization techniques has been extensively adopted in vehicle design and with the increasing complexity of systems, especially with the introduction of new technologies, it plays an even more significant role. Market competition, stringent mandatory emission regulations and the need for a future sustainable mobility have raised questions over conventional vehicles and are pushing toward new cleaner and eco-friendly solutions. Fulfilling this target without sacrificing the other vehicle’s requirements leads to extremely challenging tasks for vehicle designers. The use of virtual prototyping emerges as a possible breakthrough allowing to rapidly assess the effect of design changes and the impact of new technologies. The study presented in this work provides a suitable approach to compare different vehicle powertrain architectures through optimization techniques and deploying model-based simulation to rapidly assess vehicle performances. The vehicle model is defined at the components level through scalable models obtained from based on detailed simulation. An optimal energy management is applied to the power sources and transmission gear shifting. The optimization technique consider the main design variables of the various components including vehicle chassis and extensively exploits the design space. The multi-objective optimization considers vehicle’s consumption, emission, range, longitudinal and lateral dynamics, costs and further performances to comprehensively assess the vehicle. The results allow to compare four different powertrain architectures: combustion engine vehicle, hybrid electric vehicle with parallel and series configuration, and battery electric vehicle. The results allows furthermore to identify technological limitations and conflicts among the different objectives. A critical analysis over the main design variables allows to identify the more suitable values and in particular, for combustion engine, gearbox and electric traction drive detailed comparisons are provided.

Challenges and developments of automotive fuel cell hybrid power system and control

Fuel cells are emerging as promising power sources and have attracted increasing attention from industries and academics worldwide. In particular, automotive manufacturers are replacing internal combustion engines in vehicles with fuel cell systems, which are advantaged by zero emissions, high efficiency, and various clean routes that generate pure hydrogen. However, current fuel cell systems are costly, and their corresponding infrastructures are not fully qualified to meet current market demand. This paper reviews the challenges and developments of automotive fuel cell hybrid power systems and their controls. It briefly summarizes the model, control, and optimization issue associated with the research and application of fuel cells in hybrid power systems. After presenting the basic knowledge and discussing the trending size and structure of fuel cells for automotive usage, the review describes models of automotive fuel cell systems, focusing on the electrochemical reaction dynamics and the key parameters influencing their efficiency and lifetime. The control problems associated with automotive fuel cell systems as well as the optimization issue associated with hybrid energy systems (comprising fuel cells, batteries, and ultra-capacitors) are elaborately analyzed. The review concludes with current problems and challenges faced by the energy control systems of fuel cell vehicles.

Energy and environmental implications of electromobility implementation in Poland

Number of fully electric cars on the roads worldwide is rapidly growing. Decreasing costs of manufacturing of Lithium-ion batteries together with strong ecology-based marketing may result in one third of electric cars in total number of passenger vehicles by 2040. Polish power industry and electricity grid must be ready to accommodate increasing and significant number of passenger electric cars. In Polish energy mix, which is dominated by coal, the ecological benefit from “green traffic” would be reduced, however not insignificant, but the main problem seems to be the preparation of the electricity grid for heavily increased demand for power. The paper presents analysis of the results of replacement petrol combustion cars with fully electrical on the basis of a range of ten modern examples of vehicles being offered on the market. Their effective ranges and power consumption have been used for prognosis for Polish electromobility and power industry. Equivalent CO2 emissions have been calculated for electric and combustion engine vehicles, as well as increasing power demand for their charging and amounts of coal which will be necessary to cover the increase power demands in electricity grid.

Multi-agent modeling and analysis of EV users\u2019 travel willingness based on an integrated causal/statistical/behavioral model

An electric vehicle (EV) centred ecosystem has not yet been formed, the existing limited statistic data are far from enough for the analysis of EV users’ travel and charge behaviors, which however tends to be affected by many certain and uncertain factors. An experimental economics (EE) based simulation method can be used to analyze the behaviors of key participants in a system. However, it is restricted by the system size, experimental site and the number of qualified human participants. Therefore, this method is hard to be adopted for the behavioral analysis of a large number of human participants. In this paper, a new method combining a questionnaire statistics and the EE-based simulation is proposed. The causal relationship is considered in the design of the questionnaires and data extraction, then a multi-agent modeling integration method is introduced in the EE-based simulation, which enables the integration of causal/statistical/behavioral models into the multi-agent framework to reflect the EV users’ travel willingness statistically. The generated multi-agents are used to replace human participants in the EE-based simulation in order to evaluate EV users’ travel demands in different scenarios, and compare the differences of simulated or measured travel behaviors between potential EV users and internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle users.

Approaches for flexibility in the future automobile body shop: results of a comprehensive cross-industry study

The automobile body shop is currently facing an accelerating process of change caused by shorter product life-cycles, increasing customization and the co-existence of electric and combustion engine vehicles. High automation and rigid production systems prevent cost-efficient responses to changing boundary conditions. This paper presents the results of a comprehensive study across the automobile industry, analyzing obstacles and approaches to handle the challenges faced. In particular, an approach for a fixtureless body shop, increasing flexibility and reducing costs, is described. The approach is based on part-integrated fixture-functions, enabling fixtureless assembly and joining of the body parts.

A Predictive Energy Management Strategy Using a Rule-Based Mode Switch for Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) Vehicles

A Predictive Energy Management Strategy Using a Rule-Based Mode Switch for Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) Vehicles

Investigation of waste heat recovery system at supercritical conditions with vehicle drive cycles

Waste heat recovery (WHR) for internal combustion engines in vehicles using Organic Rankine cycle (ORC) has been a promising technology. The operation of the ORC WHR system in supercritical conditions has a potential to generate more power output and thermal efficiency compared with the conventional subcritical conditions. However, in supercritical conditions, the heat transfer process in the evaporator, the key component of the ORC WHR system, becomes unpredictable as the thermo-physical properties of the working fluid change with the temperature. Furthermore, the transient heat source from the vehicle’s exhaust makes the operation of the WHR system difficult. We investigated the performance of the ORC WHR system at supercritical conditions with engine’s exhaust data from real city and highway drive cycles. The effects of operating variables, such as refrigerant flow rates, evaporator and condenser pressure, and evaporator outlet temperature, on the performance indicators of the WHR system in supercritical conditions were examined. Simulation of operating parameters and the boundary of the WHR system are also included in this paper.

The contribution of road traffic to particulate matter and metals in air pollution in the vicinity of an urban road

A detailed investigation was conducted to study the sources of particulate matter in the vicinity of an urban road in Žilina. To determine the amount of particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5 and PM1) present in the ambient air, a reference gravimetric method was used. The main objective of this contribution was to identify the sources of these particles by means of statistical methods, specifically principal component analysis (PCA), factor analysis (FA), and absolute principal component scores (APCS), as well as using the presence of 17 metals in the particulate matter (Na, Mg, Al, Ca, V, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Mo, Sb, Cd, Ba, Pb). To identify the metals in the particulate matter samples and to determine their abundances, spectroscopic methods were used, specifically inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Each of these metals may come from a specific source, such as the burning of fossil fuels in fossil fuel power plants; local heating of households; the burning of liquefied fossil fuels in the combustion engines of vehicles; the burning of coal and wood; non-combustion related emissions resulting from vehicular traffic; resuspension of traffic-related dust; and industry. Diesel vehicles and non-combustion emissions from road traffic have been identified as two key sources of the particulate matter. The results reveal that non-combustion emissions, which are associated with the elements Na, Fe, Mn, Ni, Zn, Mo, Sb, Cd, and Pb, are the major contributors, followed by combustion emissions from diesel vehicles, which are associated with the elements Mg, Ca, and Ba.

Environmental Risk Trade-off for New Generation Vehicle Production: Malaysia Case

<p>New Generation Vehicle such as Hybrid Electric (HEV) and Battery Electric Vehicles (EV) have higher efficiency compared to conventional vehicles, and therefore releasing less carbon emissions. However, arguments arise whether this kind of New Generation Vehicle is truly clean compared to the existing system, especially in developing country such as Malaysia since current knowledge only focus on Greenhouse Gas (GHG) generation. This study aims on provide better understanding of the environmental consequences of the compact vehicle production activities based on 5 impact classifications which is GHG generation, Acidification, Eutrophication, Carcinogenic Effect, and Human Health measured in “Disability Adjusted Life-Year” (DALY) using Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) Analysis under local electricity mix in 2017 and 2030. A trade-off comparison then can be made to assess the current vehicle technologies with high potential of mass usage in Malaysia– Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle (CV), EV, and HEV vehicles with two types of batteries; Nickel Magnesium Hydride (HEV-NiMH), and Lithium Nickel-Magnesium-Cobalt (HEV-NMC). This study found that EV have slightly higher potential to cause a global warming (5,791kg of CO<sub>2</sub> equivalent emission), follow by HEV-NiMH (4,814kg), HEV-NMC (4,596kg) and CV (4,166kg) embodied per vehicle. Cradle-to-gate of CV is better in term of GHG emission and Carcinogenic impact compared to all the studied subjects but in overall measurement, it is not the best solution for human health, measured in DALY. Conversely, HEV have high environmental impact on the same categories. DALY for 2017 EV production is at 0.0014, CV at 0.0019, HEV-NiMH at 0.0036 and HEV-NMC at 0.0022. The situation created a trade-off between having higher Acidification and Eutrophication from CV production against having higher GHG emission of its replacement EV production. </p>

Electric vehicle scheduling and optimal charging problem: complexity, exact and heuristic approaches

This paper deals with the Electric Vehicle (EV) Scheduling and Optimal Charging Problem. More precisely, given a fleet of EVs and Combustion Engine Vehicles (CVs), a set of tours to be processed by vehicles and a charging infrastructure, the problem aims to optimise the assignment of vehicles to tours and minimise the charging cost of EVs while considering several operational constraints mainly related to chargers, electricity grid and EVs driving range. We prove that the Electric Vehicle Scheduling and Charging Problem (EVSCP) is NP-hard in the ordinary sense. We provide a mixed-integer linear programming formulation to model the EVSCP and use CPLEX to solve small and medium instances. To solve large instances, we propose two heuristics: a Sequential Heuristic (SH) and a Global Heuristic (GH). The SH considers the EVs sequentially. To each EV, it assigns a set of tours and guarantees the feasibility of a charging schedule. Then, it generates an optimal charging schedule for this EV. However, the GH computes, in the first step, a feasible assignment of tours to all EVs. In the second step, it applies a global Min-Cost-Flow-based charging algorithm to minimise the charging cost of the EVs fleet. To evaluate the efficiency of our solving approaches, computational results on a large set of real and randomly generated test instances are reported and compared.

Characterizing BEV Powertrain Energy Consumption, Efficiency, and Range During Official and Drive Cycles From Gothenburg, Sweden

In this paper, the energy consumption per distance of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) is comprehensively investigated for various official and gathered real-world drive cycles, including the powertrain's cycle average efficiency. The powertrain component losses are modeled with a high level of detail, and they are functions of both speed and load. It is shown that the difference in calculated drive-cycle energy consumption may be up to 16% when using two different acceleration approximation methods and one speed sample per second, which is an interval commonly used among drive cycles. In contrast to combustion engine vehicles (CEVs), BEV energy consumption per distance generally increases with increasing cycle speed levels, and time spent at high speed levels have the largest influence on the consumption. The effect of acceleration on energy consumption is seen to be considerably reduced due to regenerative braking as it reduces the consumption by up to 49% on an acceleration intense cycle. Even when the regenerative area is limited to about half, the decrease in driving range is less than 1% for most cycles. By introducing the concept of overconsumption , it is shown that much time spent at high levels of acceleration is one of the largest contributors to excess energy consumption for BEVs. Furthermore, the found cycle average powertrain efficiencies are quite similar between the different cycles, with 82%–90% during propulsion and only slightly lower during braking, i.e., much less speed dependent than for CEVs.

Internal Combustion Engines as the Main Source of Ultrafine Particles in Residential Neighborhoods: Field Measurements in the Czech Republic

Ultrafine particles (UFP, diameter < 100 nm) exposure has already been associated with adverse effects on human health. Spatial distribution of UFP is non-uniform; they concentrate in the vicinity of the source, e.g. traffic, because of their short lifespan. This work investigates spatial distribution of UFP in three areas in the Czech Republic with different traffic load: High traffic (Prague neighborhood—Sporilov), commuter road vicinity (Libeznice), and a small city with only local traffic (Celakovice). Size-resolved measurements of particles in the 5–500 nm range were taken with a particle classifier mounted, along with batteries, GPS and other accessories, on a handcart and pushed around the areas, making one-minute or longer stops at places of interest. Concentrations along main roads were elevated in comparison with places farther from the road; this pattern was observed in all sites, while particle number distributions both close and away from main roads had similar patterns. The absence of larger particles, the relative absence of higher concentrations of particles away from the main roads, and similar number distributions suggest that high particle number concentrations cannot be readily attributed to sources other than internal combustion engines in vehicles and mobile machinery (i.e., mowers and construction machines).

Chemical Compositon of PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, PM<sub>1</sub> and Influence of Meteorological Conditions on them in Zilina Self-Governing Region, Slovakia

Particulate matter (PM) is one of the striking pollutants and causes appreciable degradation of the environment and therefore the quality of life of the population. PM may originate in various natural resources or anthropogenic sources. Among the natural sources sea salt is to be counted on, dust of the earth crust, pollen and volcanic ashes. Anthropogenic sources do include, predominantly, burning fossil fuels in the fossil-fuel power plants, local heating of households, burning liquefied fossil fuels in the combustion engines of vehicles, non-combustion related emissions as a result of vehicular traffic, resuspension of the road-traffic-related dust. Their harmful effect and impact on the ambient environment is determined predominantly by the aerodynamic diameter of PM and by the presence of various chemical substances and elements. The subject of this presentation is monitoring particulate matter along the cycle of its creation in the vicinity of highway in rural area and an evaluation of fraction ratios PM10, PM2.5 and PM1 with regard to meteorological conditions and traffic volume. Wind speed and temperature appear to be the most significant meteorological factors with proven impact on particulate matter in ambient air. The fine fraction PM2.5 is determining for the total measured fraction PM10. It has also been monitored the chemical composition of PM, in particular the presence of metals in fractions of PM. Some chemical elements (metals) are characteristic for fine fraction PM2.5 and some for coarse fraction PM2.5-10. It depends primarily on measuring seasons, the distribution of potential sources of particulate matter and metals in the time and space.