Combination Of Genetic Manipulations Research Articles

Crosstalk between androgen receptor and WNT/β-catenin signaling causes sex-specific adrenocortical hyperplasia in mice

Female bias is highly prevalent in conditions such as adrenal cortex hyperplasia and neoplasia, but the reasons behind this phenomenon are poorly understood. In this study, we show that overexpression of the secreted WNT agonist R-spondin 1 (RSPO1) leads to ectopic activation of WNT/β-catenin signaling and causes sex-specific adrenocortical hyperplasia in mice. Although female adrenals show ectopic proliferation, male adrenals display excessive immune system activation and cortical thinning. Using a combination of genetic manipulations and hormonal treatment, we show that gonadal androgens suppress ectopic proliferation in the adrenal cortex and determine the selective regulation of the WNT-related genes Axin2 and Wnt4. Notably, genetic removal of androgen receptor (AR) from adrenocortical cells restores the mitogenic effect of WNT/β-catenin signaling. This is the first demonstration that AR activity in the adrenal cortex determines susceptibility to canonical WNT signaling-induced hyperplasia.

Identification of 5-Fluoro-5-Deoxy-Ribulose as a Shunt Fluorometabolite in Streptomyces sp. MA37.

A fluorometabolite, 5-fluoro-5-deoxy-D-ribulose (5-FDRul), from the culture broth of the soil bacterium Streptomyces sp. MA37, was identified through a combination of genetic manipulation, chemo-enzymatic synthesis and NMR comparison. Although 5-FDRul has been chemically synthesized before, it was not an intermediate or a shunt product in previous studies of fluorometalism in S. cattleya. Our study of MA37 demonstrates that 5-FDRul is a naturally occurring fluorometabolite, rendering it a new addition to this rare collection of natural products. The genetic inactivation of key biosynthetic genes involved in the fluorometabolisms in MA37 resulted in the increased accumulation of unidentified fluorometabolites as observed from 19F-NMR spectral comparison among the wild type (WT) of MA37 and the mutated variants, providing evidence of the presence of other new biosynthetic enzymes involved in the fluorometabolite pathway in MA37.

Metabolic engineering of Bacillus megaterium for heparosan biosynthesis using Pasteurella multocida heparosan synthase, PmHS2

BackgroundHeparosan is the unsulfated precursor of heparin and heparan sulfate and its synthesis is typically the first step in the production of bioengineered heparin. In addition to its utility as the starting material for this important anticoagulant and anti-inflammatory drug, heparosan is a versatile compound that possesses suitable chemical and physical properties for making a variety of high-quality tissue engineering biomaterials, gels and scaffolds, as well as serving as a drug delivery vehicle. The selected production host was the Gram-positive bacterium Bacillus megaterium, which represents an increasingly used choice for high-yield production of intra- and extracellular biomolecules for scientific and industrial applications.ResultsWe have engineered the metabolism of B. megaterium to produce heparosan, using a T7 RNA polymerase (T7 RNAP) expression system. This system, which allows tightly regulated and efficient induction of genes of interest, has been co-opted for control of Pasteurella multocida heparosan synthase (PmHS2). Specifically, we show that B. megaterium MS941 cells co-transformed with pT7-RNAP and pPT7_PmHS2 plasmids are capable of producing heparosan upon induction with xylose, providing an alternate, safe source of heparosan. Productivities of ~ 250 mg/L of heparosan in shake flasks and ~ 2.74 g/L in fed-batch cultivation were reached. The polydisperse Pasteurella heparosan synthase products from B. megaterium primarily consisted of a relatively high molecular weight (MW) heparosan (~ 200–300 kD) that may be appropriate for producing certain biomaterials; while the less abundant lower MW heparosan fractions (~ 10–40 kD) can be a suitable starting material for heparin synthesis.ConclusionWe have successfully engineered an asporogenic and non-pathogenic B. megaterium host strain to produce heparosan for various applications, through a combination of genetic manipulation and growth optimization strategies. The heparosan products from B. megaterium display a different range of MW products than traditional E. coli K5 products, diversifying its potential applications and facilitating increased product utility.

Investigating symmetry breaking in yeast: From seeing to understanding.

Diverse cellular functions require the establishment of cell polarity. Althoughthe morphological manifestation of cell polarity can be complex, common principles and conserved regulatory pathways can be studied leveraging the powerful genetic tools in the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. A vast array of genetic and cell biological tools and interdisciplinary approaches have been employed to understand the establishment and maintenance of cell polarity in budding yeast. These tools enabled the identification of key molecular components, their mechanisms of action, and the pathway governing the spatiotemporal properties of cell polarity. In this review, we describe a set of useful methods with special focus on the combination of genetic manipulation and quantitative live-cell imaging, as well as advanced microscopy-based quantitative analysis, for studying symmetry-breaking process in budding yeast. Specific examples are included to illustrate the utilities of each method.

Distinct Mechanical Roles for Bacteria-Produced Biopolymers in Biofilm Initiation and Strength

Chronic bacterial infections are often in the form of biofilms, which resist antibiotics and evade the immune defense. In biofilms, microbes are embedded in a matrix consisting largely of self-produced extracellular polysaccharides (EPS). Multiple types of EPS can be produced by a single bacterial strain - the reasons for this redundancy are not well-understood. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic human pathogen that produces three types of EPS: PEL, PSL, and alginate. We use a combination of genetic manipulation, microscopy, rheology, and molecular force spectroscopy to show that different polymers confer distinct mechanical and biological properties to single bacteria and to mature biofilms.When individual bacteria attach to a surface, intracellular levels of cyclic-di-GMP increase. Cyclic-di-GMP is required to change gene expression to initiate the transition to the biofilm state. What specific cues control cyclic-di-GMP production were previously unknown - we show that this is controlled by mechanical shear stress, which is primarily impacted by bacterial motility and the EPS coating on bacteria. This opens up the possibility of making a new class of anti-biofilm surface, by using a 2D fluid that cannot sustain a lateral shear stress and thereby preventing activation of the cyclic-di-GMP signal.P. aeruginosa biofilm infections in the cystic fibrosis (CF) lung often last for decades, ample time for the infecting strain(s) to evolve. Production of alginate is well-known to tend to increase during CF infections. More recently, it is becoming recognized that CF infections also evolve to increase PSL production. Alginate chemically protects biofilms, but also makes them softer and weaker. Here, we show that PSL stiffens and strengthens biofilms, and that increased PSL production in biofilms grown from CF clinical isolates completely rescues the mechanical weakening caused by alginate.

High Trap Formation and Low Metabolite Production by Disruption of the Polyketide Synthase Gene Involved in the Biosynthesis of Arthrosporols from Nematode-Trapping Fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora.

A group of morphology regulatory arthrosporol metabolites have been recently characterized from carnivorous fungus Arthrobotrys oligospora that can develop trapping networks to capture their prey. A combination of genetic manipulation and chemical analyses was applied to characterize the function of one polyketide synthase (PKS) gene AOL_s00215g283 in A. oligospora, which was putatively involved in the production of 6-methylsalicylic acid. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis showed that the disruption of the PKS gene not only led to the total loss of the arthrosporol A but also resulted in significant reduction in the production of secondary metabolites in the cultural broth of the mutant ΔAOL_s00215g283 strain. Interestingly, the mutant strain displayed significant increases in the trap formation and the nematicidal activity by 10 and 2 times, respectively, higher than the wild-type strain. These findings revealed a pathogenicity-related biosynthetic gene of this agriculturally important biological agent and have implications for establishment of efficient fungal biocontrol agents.

Identifying Protein-protein Interaction in <em>Drosophila</em> Adult Heads by Tandem Affinity Purification (TAP)

Genetic screens conducted using Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) have made numerous milestone discoveries in the advance of biological sciences. However, the use of biochemical screens aimed at extending the knowledge gained from genetic analysis was explored only recently. Here we describe a method to purify the protein complex that associates with any protein of interest from adult fly heads. This method takes advantage of the Drosophila GAL4/UAS system to express a bait protein fused with a Tandem Affinity Purification (TAP) tag in fly neurons in vivo, and then implements two rounds of purification using a TAP procedure similar to the one originally established in yeast(1) to purify the interacting protein complex. At the end of this procedure, a mixture of multiple protein complexes is obtained whose molecular identities can be determined by mass spectrometry. Validation of the candidate proteins will benefit from the resource and ease of performing loss-of-function studies in flies. Similar approaches can be applied to other fly tissues. We believe that the combination of genetic manipulations and this proteomic approach in the fly model system holds tremendous potential for tackling fundamental problems in the field of neurobiology and beyond.

Measurement of the mechanical behavior of yeast membrane sensors using single-molecule atomic force microscopy

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, surface stresses acting on the cell wall or plasma membrane are detected by a group of five membrane sensors: Wsc1, Wsc2, Wsc3, Mid2 and Mtl2. Here we present protocols to measure the mechanical properties of Wsc1 sensors in their native cellular environment, using the combination of genetic manipulations with single-molecule atomic-force microscopy (AFM). We describe procedures (i) for obtaining genetically modified sensors that are fully functional and suitable for AFM analysis, i.e., elongated Wsc1 derivatives terminated with a His-tag, and (ii) for detecting and stretching single Wsc1 sensors on the surface of living S. cerevisiae cells, using AFM tips functionalized with Ni(2+)-NTA groups. These procedures are multidisciplinary to implement and need competent researchers from at least two disciplines: molecular biology and nanotechnology. For experienced researchers in biological AFM, the entire protocol can be completed in approximately 3 weeks.

Interest of using genetically manipulated mice as models of depression to evaluate antidepressant drugs activity: a review

Among the multiple possibilities to study human depressive disorders, animal models remain important preclinical tools. They allow the understanding of the mechanisms of action of antidepressant drugs. Primarily developed in rat, animal models of depression have been adapted to the mouse, an easy-to-use mammal with better genetic possibilities than rats. As an example, genetic manipulation of the serotoninergic 5-hydroxytryptamine-HT; (5-HT) system provided important opportunities to investigate the role of this monoamine in mood disorders. The contribution of either constitutive knockout (KO), tissue specific, or inducible KO mice and animal models in the current knowledge of the pathophysiology and treatment of depression is unanimously recognized. The phenotype of genetically manipulated animals is strongly influenced by both the genetic background of the animal as well as environmental factors. For these reasons, it is necessary to underline that KO mice have been generated on various genetic backgrounds, which strongly influence the behavioral and neurochemical responses to the tests. The present review will thus focus on KO mice lacking G protein-coupled monoaminergic receptors (e.g; 5-HT1B, 5-HT1A, and 5-HT4 receptors) and the 5-HT serotonin transporter, which is the main target of antidepressant drugs (or strategies). The importance of KO mice for neurotrophic factors, particularly for brain-derived neurotrophic factor and its main receptor displaying a tyrosine kinase activity, will also be addressed to illustrate the fact that in preclinical studies, combination of genetic manipulations with pharmacological ones should allow further progress in the field of neuropsychopharmacology.

Lycopene over-accumulation by disruption of the negative regulator gene crgA in Mucor circinelloides

Lycopene has become one of the most interesting antioxidant compounds, especially in relation to human health. This work describes a genetic strategy to modify the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway to develop a lycopene-overproducing strain. The crgA gene, a negative regulator of carotenogenesis, was disrupted in the Mucor circinelloides strain MU202, which lacks the lycopene cyclase activity and accumulates lycopene instead of beta-carotene. The resultant strain, MU224, demonstrated increased transcriptional levels of the carotenogenesis structural genes carRP and carB compared to the parental strain MU202. As a consequence, strain MU224 accumulated 5 mg/g of dry weight of cells in liquid cultures, a sevenfold increase with respect to the parental strain. Moreover, when lycopene production was examined in a complex enriched medium, biomass increased tenfold compared to that obtained in synthetic minimal medium. In this complex medium, the production rate of lycopene by strain MU224 reached 54 g/l. These results illustrate how a combination of genetic manipulation and optimized culture conditions can be utilized to enhance the production of commercially desirable compounds such as lycopene.

Stromal Cell–Derived Inducing Activity, Nurr1, and Signaling Molecules Synergistically Induce Dopaminergic Neurons from Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells

To induce differentiation of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) into specialized cell types for therapeutic purposes, it may be desirable to combine genetic manipulation and appropriate differentiation signals. We studied the induction of dopaminergic (DA) neurons from mouse ESCs by overexpressing the transcription factor Nurr1 and coculturing with PA6 stromal cells. Nurr1-expressing ESCs (N2 and N5) differentiated into a higher number of neurons (approximately twofold) than the naïve ESCs (D3). In addition, N2/N5-derived cells contained a significantly higher proportion (>50%) of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)+ neurons than D3 (<30%) and an even greater proportion of TH+ neurons (approximately 90%) when treated with the signaling molecules sonic hedgehog, fibroblast growth factor 8, and ascorbic acid. N2/N5-derived cells express much higher levels of DA markers (e.g., TH, dopamine transporter, aromatic amino acid decarboxylase, and G protein-regulated inwardly rectifying K+ channel 2) and produce and release a higher level of dopamine, compared with D3-derived cells. Furthermore, the majority of generated neurons exhibited electrophysiological properties characteristic of midbrain DA neurons. Finally, transplantation experiments showed efficient in vivo integration/generation of TH+ neurons after implantation into mouse striatum. Taken together, our results show that the combination of genetic manipulation(s) and in vitro cell differentiation conditions offers a reliable and effective induction of DA neurons from ESCs and may pave the way for future cell transplantation therapy in Parkinson's disease.

Improved secretory production of glucoamylase in Pichia pastoris by combination of genetic manipulations

Rhizopus oryzae glucoamylase (GA) has been genetically engineered with modified signal peptide (MSP), increased copy number of the gene, and coexpression of SEC4, a gene encoding a Rab protein associated with secretory vesicles, and its secretion level has been successfully raised up to 100-fold in Pichia pastoris. The MSP was designed to contain the signal peptide of mouse salivary α-amylase (S8L) fused to the pro-region of the signal peptide of Saccharomyces cerevisiae α-mating factor to replace the wild type signal peptide (WTSP) of GA. The P. pastoris transformant MSPGA-1 containing a single copy of MSPGA gene showed a 3.6-fold increase in GA secretion as compared to that of WTSPGA-1. Moreover, the P. pastoris transformant MSPGA-7 harboring seven copies of the MSPGA inserts was identified and showed 56-fold higher secreted GA than WTSPGA-1. In addition, we found that overexpression of SEC4 further doubled the secretion level of GA in each MSPGA/P. pastoris transformant. Taken together, the MSPGA-7-SEC4 clone showed as much as 100-fold secretion level of GA when compared to WTSPGA-1. In summary, we have demonstrated that combination of the aforementioned genetic manipulations resulted in high level secretion of R. oryzae GA in P. pastoris.

Regulation of spine morphology and synaptic function by LIMK and the actin cytoskeleton.

Filamentous actin (F-actin) is highly enriched in the dendritic spine, a specialized postsynaptic structure on which the great majority of the excitatory synapses are formed in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). The protein kinases of the Lim-kinase (LIMK) family are potent regulators of actin dynamics in many cell types and they are abundantly expressed in the CNS, including the hippocampus. Using a combination of genetic manipulations and electrophysiological recordings in mice, we have demonstrated that LIMK-1 signaling is important in vivo in the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton, spine morphology, and synaptic function, including hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP), a prominent form of long lasting synaptic plasticity thought to be critical to memory formation. Our results provide strong genetic evidence that LIMK and its substrate ADF/cofilin are involved in spine morphology and synaptic properties and are consistent with the notion that the Rho family small GTPases and the actin cytoskeleton are critical to spine structure and synaptic regulation.