Collegiate Track Research Articles

Dynamic Warm-up Optimizes Sprint Performance In Collegiate Track Athletes

Dynamic Warm-up Optimizes Sprint Performance In Collegiate Track Athletes

Anaerobic Power Profiles In Track And Field

PURPOSE: To evaluate the importance of lower body and upper body anaerobic power in relation to performance in track and field events where the importance and development of anaerobic power varies substantially from event to event. METHODS: Thirty-two collegiate track and field athletes performed a standard Wingate Anaerobic Test to evaluate lower body anaerobic power (AnP-L) followed by a modified Wingate Anaerobic Test to evaluate upper body anaerobic power (AnP-U). Each athlete's personal records were converted to standardized values using the IAAF Scoring Tables of Athletics and the standardize values were correlated with AnP-L and AnP-U. RESULTS: The highest levels of peak AnP-L were achieved in short sprints, 200 and sprint hurdles (9.78 W/kg, 9.76 W/kg, 9.62 W/kg). The lowest levels of peak AnP-L were achieved in 5,000/10,000, 1,500/Mile and 800 (8.17 W/kg, 8.34 W/kg, 8.92 W/kg). The highest levels of average AnP-L were achieved in horizontal jumps, 200 and short sprints (7.75 W/kg, 7.68 W/kg, 7.67 W/kg). The lowest levels of average AnP-L were achieved in 5,000/10,000, vertical jumps, 800 and 1,500/Mile (6.74 W/kg, 7.14 W/kg, 7.18 W/kg, 7.18 W/kg). The highest levels of peak AnP-U were achieved in 400, sprint hurdles and 200 (3.34 W/kg, 3.31 W/kg, 3.30 W/kg). The lowest levels of peak AnP-U were achieved in 5,000/10,000, 800 and 1,500/Mile (2.35 W/kg, 2.77 W/kg, 2.79 W/kg). The highest levels of average AnP-U were achieved in sprint hurdles, 200 and horizontal jumps (2.65 W/kg, 2.59 W/kg, 2.53 W/kg). The lowest levels of average AnP-U were achieved in 5,000/10,000, 1,500/Mile and 800 (1.98 W/kg, 2.23 W/kg, 2.29 W/kg). Peak AnP-L correlated most with performance for 1,500, 800, sprint hurdles, 200 and 400 (0.93, 0.90, 0.68, 0.59, 0.51). Average AnP-L correlated most with performance for 1,500/Mile, 800, 400, 200 and short sprints (0.97, 0.91, 0.80, 0.64, 0.39). Peak AnP-U correlated most with performance in vertical jumps and 1,500/Mile (0.75, 0.34). Average AnP-U correlated most with performance in 800, 1,500/Mile, horizontal jumps and 400 (0.96, 0.92, 0.57, 0.40). CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that anaerobic power may be a secondary consequence of training in a wide range of track and field events, but that excessive emphasis should not be placed on the development of anaerobic power for track and field events.

The Short-Term Effect of Whole Body Vibration Training on Sprint Start in Collegiate Athletes

Whole body vibration (WBV) is characterized by a vibratory stimulus emitted throughout the body through the use of a vibrating platform on which the subject stands. Studies have shown over 30% increases in maximal explosive strength such as maximal speed biceps curl as well as increases in maximum dynamic force such as maximal sitting bench pull as the result of vibration. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of short term whole-body vibration on sprint starts among collegiate track athletes. On the first day eleven subjects were randomly assigned to either a non-vibration or vibration group for initial testing. The vibration group used whole body vibration along with their normal warm-up routine while the non-vibration group did not. Force measurements were taken where the starting blocks were placed using a force plate embedded under the track surface following the warm up. One week later the groups alternated. The results were then compared between vibration and non-vibration groups for individual athletes. The vibration protocol occurred for 60 s at 26 Hz with an amplitude of 4mm on a Galileo 2000 platform. Repeated measures analysis of the variance showed peak resultant force was 6% greater when the vibration platform was utilized prior to the start (p=0.013). Further research is needed to determine whether any meaningful differences exist in sprint start velocity as a result of WBV. There were no observed differences in the 30m sprint times.

Evaluation of the BOD POD for Estimating Percent Body Fat in Collegiate Track and Field Female Athletes: A Comparison of Four Methods

This investigation examined the accuracy of the BOD POD on a group of Division I collegiate track and field female athletes (N = 30). Hydrostatic weighing (HW) was used as the gold standard method. Body density (Db) values obtained from the BOD POD (Db BP) were compared with those determined by HW (Db HW). Both Db values were converted to percent body fat (%BF) using the Siri equation for comparison. Percent body fat values obtained from the BOD POD (BF BP) were also compared with those obtained from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA, BF DXA) and skinfold (SF, BF SF). The validity of the BOD POD was assessed using repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), and the relationship between the methods was examined through Pearson correlation. Average Db BP was 0.00890 g x cm(-3) lower (p < 0.05) than Db HW, resulting in a significant overestimation of %BF (p < 0.05) by the BOD POD. Values for BFDXA and BFBP also differed significantly (p < 0.05). On the other hand, BFSF and BF BP were not significantly different. The correlation between percent body fat values obtained from HW (BFHW) and BF BP was good (r = 0.88, SEE = 2.30) as well as between BF SF and BF BP (r = 0.85, SEE = 2.05). Conversely, the correlation between BFDXA and BF BP was poor (r = 0.25, SEE = 5.73). The strong correlation between BF BP and BF HW presented here suggests that the BOD POD has the potential to be used as a body composition analysis tool for female athletes. The advantages of the BOD POD over HW encourage further investigation of this instrument. However, the fact that the BOD POD and SF results did not differ significantly might suggest that the SF could be used in its place until a better rate of accuracy for this instrument is established.

Iliac Stress Fracture in a Male Collegiate Track Athlete

Iliac Stress Fracture in a Male Collegiate Track Athlete

American women's track and field, 1981-2000: a history

In 1895, the Vassar College Athletic Association ignored the constraints placed on women athletes of that era and held its first-ever women's field day, featuring competition in five track and field events. Soon colleges across the country were offering women the opportunity to compete. Much has changed for collegiate track and field programs over time, particularly in recent years. A full program of distance events was added to the 1984 Olympic's schedule culminating in the marathon; by the year 2000, women were throwing the hammer, running the steeplechase, triple jumping and pole vaulting. Today, many await the replacement of the heptathlon with the decathlon - when this change occurs, the men's and women's programs will finally be equal. This exhaustive history, a continuation of the first volume which covered the years 1895 through 1980, details every United States Olympic team, Olympic trial, national championship, Pan American Games and other significant meets involving American women in track and field events from 1981 through 2000. Almost 50 unique interviews with outstanding athletes and coaches, more than 100 photographs, a listing of enshrinees in the National Track and Field Hall of Fame, listings of major award winners and New York Marathon winners, and an extensive bibliography and index are included.

Training Mode Does Not Affect Limb Venous Compliance in Endurance Athletes

It has been well established that calf venous compliance improves with endurance exercise training. However, we do not yet know whether endurance training mode affects these training adaptations. It has been suggested that differences exist in cardiovascular and sympathoadrenal responses when comparing swimming to running or upright cycling, and hypervolemia is not as pronounced with chronic swimming compared to upright exercise. PURPOSE: To determine the calf and forearm venous compliance differences between highly trained runners and swimmers. METHODS: Eighteen healthy endurance trained collegiate track and cross country athletes [9 male (20.5+ 1.5 yrs, 82.9+5.5 ml*kg−1*min−1)], [9 female (20.6+2.5 yrs, 60.2+21.1 )] and 14 healthy endurance trained collegiate swimmers [7 male (21.14+1.6 yrs, 65.8+12.3 ml*kg−1*min−1)], [7 female (20.8+1.8 yrs, 53.0+10.5 ml*kg−1*min−1)] underwent maximal graded exercise tests and assessments of calf and forearm venous compliance. Utilizing venous occlusion plethysmography, limb venous compliance was determined in both groups using the first derivative of the pressure-volume relationship during cuff pressure reduction. Compliance was compared as the slope of the compliance-pressure relationship. RESULTS: The swimmers were significantly heavier than the runners (75.2 + 4.2 vs. 63.8 + 2.2 kg; p<.05). VO2 max was significantly greater in the runners than the swimmers (71.6 + 19 vs. 59.5 + 12.9 ml*kg−1*min−1; p <0.05). There were no significant differences in the pressure-volume parameters for the calf or forearm of either group. Further, there was only a tendency for the slope of the compliance of the calf to be greater in the runners than the swimmers (−.0015 + .00075 vs −.0011 + .00047 ml 100ml−1 mmHg−1; p=.07), while there was no difference in compliance of the forearms (p=.29). CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest that running does not increase venous compliance in the calf more than swimming, despite a greater overall fitness level in the runners. Further, swimming does not increase venous compliance in the forearm more than running.

Proximal Humeral Epiphyseal Plate Fracture in a Collegiate Track and Field Decathlete: A Case Study

To present the case of an 18-year-old collegiate decathlete with a Salter-Harris type I epiphyseal plate fracture of the proximal humerus. A collegiate decathlete was playing flag football and fell on an outstretched arm. He was taken to the emergency room and diagnosed with a type I epiphyseal plate fracture. AC sprain, dislocation or subluxation, rotator cuff tear, labral tear. Active and passive range of motion exercises were completed after two days of immobilization. He then started strengthening exercises and returned to competitive activity in 10 weeks. Proximal humeral epiphyseal plate fractures are uncommon injuries, especially in athletes over the age of 15. If an accurate diagnosis is made, an appropriate conservative rehabilitation program can be implemented to safely return an athlete to participation without permanent deformity following a type I Salter-Harris fracture.

Static Stretching Impairs Sprint Performance in Collegiate Track and Field Athletes

Previous research has shown that static stretching (SS) can diminish the peak force output of stretch-shortening cycle actions while performing a dynamic warm-up (DW) protocol has been shown to enhance performance in similar activities. The purpose of this study was to establish whether the deleterious effects of SS would wash out the performance enhancements obtained from the DW. Eleven males and 11 females, who were athletes of a NCAA Division I track team, performed a DW followed with either a SS or rest (NS) condition. After warm-up was completed, three 40 m sprints were performed to investigate the effects of the SS condition on sprint performance when preceded by DW. Time(s) were obtained from timing gates placed at 0, 20, and 40 m respectively. Testing was conducted over 2 days with a 1 week washout period. Testing order was balanced to eliminate possible order effect. Time for the NS versus the SS group was significantly faster for the second 20 m with a time of 2.41 versus 2.38 seconds (P < or = .05), and for the entire 40 m with a time of 5.6 +/- 0.4 versus 5.7 +/- 0.4 seconds (P < or = .05). The results of this study suggest that performing a SS protocol following a DW will inhibit sprint performance in collegiate athletes.

Assessment of Bone Mineral Density in Female Collegiate Track and Field/Cross Country Athletes

Bone Mineral Density (BMD) assessment as been performed in numerous athletes. In many of the athletes who participate in weight bearing activity, BMD has been found to be higher than in inactive individuals of the same age range. On the other hand, in some athletes who participate in sports that require low body fatness, especially in female athletes, BMD may be lower than inactive individuals. Low BMD of female athletes has been found to be related to eating disorders and the early development of osteoporosis. Track and field/cross country athletes are encouraged to maintain low body fatness and body weight while participating in intense endurance training. PURPOSE: The purpose of the preliminary study was to ascertain the BMD and body composition of Division I female track and field/cross country athletes, and to gain insight as to whether or not their BMD was related to body fatness and body mass. METHODS: Female track and field/cross country athletes (n=18) were assessed for BMD and body composition on a GE Lunar Prodigy bone densitometer. The data were analyzed using simple descriptive statistics, and correlations (Pearson). RESULTS: The mean (±SD) age, height and weight of the athletes were 20.7±3.0 yrs, 1.63±0.06 m, and 54.5±7.5 kg, respectively. Total body fat composition (16.0±6.7%) ranged from 4.3 to 27.9%. These values are comparable on average to previously published values of 15–19% for collegiate female track and field athletes. The mean L1 -L4 spine BMD of 1.227±0.170 g/cm2 was greater (105%) than that of other females matched for age, weight and ethnic group. Spine BMD correlated to body mass (r=.84, p=0.001) and fat free mass (r=.77, p=0.001). Additionally, right and left femur BMDs (1.135±0.131 and 1.115±0.125g/cm2, respectively) were identically correlated to body mass (r=.57, p=.014) and were found to be greater (>113%) than age- and weight-matched females. There were no significant relationships between spine and femur BMD and total body fat composition (r=.44, p=0.070; and r=.23, p=0.360, respectively). CONCLUSION: These preliminary results suggest that the intense weight bearing activity involved in collegiate track and field/cross country sports may have a positive impact on the BMD of female athletes despite their low body fat composition.

The Association Of Foot Arch Height And Running Performance

PURPOSE The arch of the foot is variable between individuals. Several studies have assessed arch characteristics in relation to injuries, however, no study has investigated foot arch height as a competitive advantage in runners. METHODS 133 competitive high school and collegiate track athletes and 180 recreationally active college students were assessed for arch and running ability. Athletes documented personal bests in competitive events while college students were directly assessed for mile-run, agility and several potential covariates. RESULTS High arch was significantly more frequent in distance athletes than sprint athletes (p<0.05). After adjusting for gender and competitive level, higher arch was associated with faster times in the 5000 M within the distance runners (n=65, p<0.01). Conversely, flatter arch was more frequent in sprinters than distance runners (p<0.05) and times in 200 M were significantly faster in sprinters with flatter arches (N=25, p<0.05). Arch was significantly flatter in competitive runners than college students (p<0.05). In the college students, higher arch was associated to faster mile time (flat=10.5±0.6, med=9.3±0.3, high=8.2±0.4, p<0.05) adjusted for gender, body fat, and activity level.No association between agility time and arch of the foot was identified. CONCLUSIONS Higher arch is associated with a competitive advantage for distance running in both competitively and recreationally active men and women. Biomechanical and/or other determinants of this advantage remain to be investigated.

The Association Of Foot Arch Height And Running Performance

PURPOSE The arch of the foot is variable between individuals. Several studies have assessed arch characteristics in relation to injuries, however, no study has investigated foot arch height as a competitive advantage in runners. METHODS 133 competitive high school and collegiate track athletes and 180 recreationally active college students were assessed for arch and running ability. Athletes documented personal bests in competitive events while college students were directly assessed for mile-run, agility and several potential covariates. RESULTS High arch was significantly more frequent in distance athletes than sprint athletes (p<0.05). After adjusting for gender and competitive level, higher arch was associated with faster times in the 5000 M within the distance runners (n=65, p<0.01). Conversely, flatter arch was more frequent in sprinters than distance runners (p<0.05) and times in 200 M were significantly faster in sprinters with flatter arches (N=25, p<0.05). Arch was significantly flatter in competitive runners than college students (p<0.05). In the college students, higher arch was associated to faster mile time (flat=10.5±0.6, med=9.3±0.3, high=8.2±0.4, p<0.05) adjusted for gender, body fat, and activity level.No association between agility time and arch of the foot was identified. CONCLUSIONS Higher arch is associated with a competitive advantage for distance running in both competitively and recreationally active men and women. Biomechanical and/or other determinants of this advantage remain to be investigated.

Eating Disorder Risk Among Female Collegiate Track and Field Athletes

Eating Disorder Risk Among Female Collegiate Track and Field Athletes

Eating Disorder Risk Among Female Collegiate Track and Field Athletes

Eating Disorder Risk Among Female Collegiate Track and Field Athletes

An Examination of the Relationship Among Three Indirect Tests of Anaerobic Threshold

0295 Presently, the most accurate method of determining anaerobic threshold is through direct measurement of blood lactate. This method can be both difficult and expensive. There have been several tests developed with the intention of estimating anaerobic threshold indirectly through analysis of an individual's power output as measured in watts. The Wingate cycle test has become the most widely used and accepted form of standardized indirect anaerobic testing. Yet, the cycling action of the Wingate test may not be conducive to best-effort results for those athletes whose main mode of movement is a running motion. It has been well established that muscles adapt to the specific patterns of movement that are employed during training. Therefore, an accurate noninvasive test of anaerobic threshold should utilize the same muscle recruitment patterns as the athlete's training regimen. PURPOSE: To determine the relationship among the Wingate 30-second cycle test (WAnT) and 2 running-based anaerobic tests: an exhaustive treadmill run (TR) of 8mph with an incline gradient of 20%, and a repeated sprint test (RST) consisting of six 35-meter non-continuous sprints. METHODS: Twenty-four male (78.6−± 8.1kg) and fourteen female (63.2 ± 4.9kg) anaerobically trained collegiate track and field athletes participated in this study. Correlation coefficients were calculated to distinguish relationships among anaerobic estimates. Statistical significance was set at p≤0.01. RESULTS: significant associations were established between the following: WAnT vs. TR (r = 0.705), WAnT vsFIRST (r = 0.760), and TR vsFIRST (r = 0.891). CONCLUSION: The TR or RST tests are feasible alternatives for coaches or athletes wishing to test anaerobic threshold in a manner consistent with the running specific motion utilized in training.

An Examination of the Relationship Among Three Indirect Tests of Anaerobic Threshold

0295 Presently, the most accurate method of determining anaerobic threshold is through direct measurement of blood lactate. This method can be both difficult and expensive. There have been several tests developed with the intention of estimating anaerobic threshold indirectly through analysis of an individual's power output as measured in watts. The Wingate cycle test has become the most widely used and accepted form of standardized indirect anaerobic testing. Yet, the cycling action of the Wingate test may not be conducive to best-effort results for those athletes whose main mode of movement is a running motion. It has been well established that muscles adapt to the specific patterns of movement that are employed during training. Therefore, an accurate noninvasive test of anaerobic threshold should utilize the same muscle recruitment patterns as the athlete's training regimen. PURPOSE: To determine the relationship among the Wingate 30-second cycle test (WAnT) and 2 running-based anaerobic tests: an exhaustive treadmill run (TR) of 8mph with an incline gradient of 20%, and a repeated sprint test (RST) consisting of six 35-meter non-continuous sprints. METHODS: Twenty-four male (78.6−± 8.1kg) and fourteen female (63.2 ± 4.9kg) anaerobically trained collegiate track and field athletes participated in this study. Correlation coefficients were calculated to distinguish relationships among anaerobic estimates. Statistical significance was set at p≤0.01. RESULTS: significant associations were established between the following: WAnT vs. TR (r = 0.705), WAnT vsFIRST (r = 0.760), and TR vsFIRST (r = 0.891). CONCLUSION: The TR or RST tests are feasible alternatives for coaches or athletes wishing to test anaerobic threshold in a manner consistent with the running specific motion utilized in training.

FEMALE TRACK ATHLETES ARE AT INCREASED RISK FOR STRESS FRACTURES

A number of studies support a greater risk for sustaining a stress fracture in women. This finding is especially noted in military studies, but has not been a consistent finding in the athletic population. There are currently no prospective studies in athletes that have demonstrated a gender difference in stress fracture incidence. OBJECTIVES: To assess if female collegiate track and cross-country athletes are at higher risk for stress fractures compared to male athletes in a five year prospective study. METHODS: Athletes on the UCLA track and cross country teams were followed prospectively from the fall of 1996 through the spring of 2001. There were a total of 211 athletes (116 males and 95 females) participating in the study. Athletes completed a detailed medical questionnaire and had a physical examination annually. Injured athletes were initially examined by an athletic trainer and referred to the team physician. If a stress fracture was suspected after obtaining a history and physical examination, X-rays were obtained. If X-rays were negative, MRI was used for diagnosis. The incidence of stress fractures was determined for male and female athletes and regression analysis was used to assess if gender, as well as other variables, were risk factors for stress fracture. RESULTS: The incidence rate of stress fractures for female athletes was 10.7 percent of total years of participation in the study, and 5.1 percent for males athletes (p < 0.038). The incident rate ratio was 2.1, females to males. CONCLUSION: Female track and cross country athletes are at higher risk for sustaining a stress fracture compared to male athletes. Further studies are needed to explore these findings. Funding: USOC Sport Science and Technology Grant, USA Track and Field and the UCLA General Clinical Research Center.

DIETARY INTAKES AND BEHAVIORS OF FEMALE COLLEGIATE TRACK AND CROSS-COUNTRY ATHLETES

Female athletes may be at risk for nutrient deficiencies due to dietary restriction and disordered eating behaviors associated with the desire to lose weight. Purpose: The objectives of this study were: 1) to determine the prevalence of disordered eating and 2) to describe desired weight change, diet-related behaviors, and nutrient intakes in female collegiate track and cross-country athletes. Methods: Female track and cross-country athletes (n = 42) from a NCAA Division I university participated in this study. An anonymous, written questionnaire was used to assess disordered eating (Questionnaire for Eating Disorder Diagnosis, QEDD), demographic characteristics, and additional diet-related behaviors. Thirty-seven athletes also completed a food frequency questionnaire (Youth Assessment Questionnaire, YAQ). The Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) were used as the criteria for determination of adequate intakes. The study was approved by the MU IRB. Descriptive statistics included means and frequencies for continuous and categorical variables, respectively. Logistic regression was used to determine if the desire to lose weight predicted restrictive eating behaviors. Results: Two athletes were identified as having bulimia nervosa. An additional seven athletes were determined to be non-eating disordered but symptomatic with the most frequent subthreshold types being binge eating disorder and non-bingeing bulimia. Seventy-six percent of the athletes reported wanting to lose weight even though the average BMI was within the normal range (22.2 ± 0.5). BMI did not predict the desire to lose weight. On average, women wanted to lose 6 pounds which was equivalent to a BMI of 21.1 ± 0.5. Athletes who reported a desire to lose weight were twice as likely to also report restricting their fat intake in order to avoid weight gain. Significant proportions of the women consumed inadequate Ca (41%), Fe (30%), Mg(46%), and folate (22%) although average intakes exceeded the DRIs. Conclusion: Female athletes appear to be at an increased risk for disordered eating and nutrient deficiencies as a result of their desire to lose weight. Supported by the Department of Nutritional Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia

AN EXAMINATION OF FLEXIBILITY AND RUNNING ECONOMY IN FEMALE COLLEGIATE TRACK ATHLETES

Limited information exists regarding the association between flexibility and running economy in female athletes. The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between lower limb and trunk flexibility and running economy in female collegiate track athletes (n = 10; age = 19.8 ± 2.15 yr). Subjects completed four testing sessions over a 1-week period. The first session assessed maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max = 52.53 ± 6.53 ml·kg·−1min−1). The second session assessed trunk and lower limb flexibility. Two sets of eight flexibility measures (trunk rotation, side bend, quadriceps stretch, standing external hip rotation with hip flexion at 90°, sit-and-reach, hip flexion, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion) were performed after a 10-min treadmill warm-up at 2.01 m·sec−1. The third session consisted of three 10-min accommodation runs at a speed of 2.01 m·sec−1 which was approximately 70% VO2max. The fourth session assessed running economy. Subjects completed a 5-min warm-up at 2.01 m·sec−1 followed by a 10-min run at 2.01 m·sec−1. Results revealed that repeated measures of flexibility were highly correlated. Correlational analyses revealed that right trunk rotation (r = 0.634, p < 0.01) and left trunk rotation (r = 0.789, p < 0.05) significantly correlated with running economy. Results suggest that subjects with greater trunk rotation were more economical than subjects with less trunk rotation. Results support general beliefs that improved flexibility is desirable for enhanced running economy.

Functional Strength Considerations for the Advanced High Jumper

Medcenter One Exercise Physiology Services Bismarck, North Dakota Doug Schweigert, MS, CSCS, is the Director of Exercise Physiology Services with Medcenter One Health Services in Bismarck, North Dakota. He also coaches collegiate track and field in the jumping events and has coached 13 national champions and 11 national runners-up. He currently coaches at the University of Mary.