Collectivism Research Articles

Exploring the impact of horizontal collectivism on creating shared value actions: a study on brand attitude, purchase intention, and social corporate engagement

Exploring the impact of horizontal collectivism on creating shared value actions: a study on brand attitude, purchase intention, and social corporate engagement

Employee workplace wellbeing amid disruptions

PurposeThis study aims to assess the effect of job insecurity, customer incivility and work–life imbalance on Lebanese bank employee workplace well-being (EWW), while investigating the moderating role that positive and negative affect might have.Design/methodology/approachQuantitative data was collected from 202 respondents and analyzed using structural equation modeling system through IBM SPSS and AMOS.FindingsResults revealed that each of the independent variables has a negative, statistically significant effect on Lebanese bank EWW. The positive affect and the negative one are shown to have a moderating effect that lessens and boosts, respectively, these negative effects.Theoretical implicationsThe study adds to the literature on EWW while highlighting the high-power distance and collectivist society that the research took place in.Research limitations/implicationsLimitations include the sample size that was hoped to be larger, in addition to the self-reporting issue and what it entails in the data collection process.Practical implicationsThe study has many practical implications, including the validation of a questionnaire in a developing Arab country, hence providing a reliable tool for researchers. HR specialists should lean toward applicants with positive affect, ensuring that their workplace is occupied by members with enhanced resilience. Furthermore, employers should support their employees’ professional growth, thus, boosting their employability during turmoil and consequently making them less vulnerable in times of economic recession.Originality/valueThe study’s unique context, depicted in the harsh economic and financial crisis, makes the findings on EWW of a high value.

INTENTION TO USE WEARABLE ROBOTS FOR INDEPENDENT LIVING : THE ROLE OF CULTURE AND PERSUASIVE HEALTH COMMUNICATION

Abstract Soft wearable robots are emerging assistive technologies that can prolong independent living among older adults experiencing progressive muscle loss, such as sarcopenia. In order to fulfil the wish of aging-in-place and relieve caregiver burden, it is essential to increase wearable robots acceptance through persuasive health communication strategies. This study draws on the integration of the senior technology acceptance model, health communication, and cultural value orientation to predict the intention to use wearable robots among older adults. A 2 (message framing: gain- versus loss-framed) x 2 (temporal framing: distal- versus proximal-framed) randomized experiment was conducted with 154 older adults aged 50 to 74 years, using a self-administered cross-sectional from December 2022 to March 2023 in Hong Kong. A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted with six blocks of variables. Demographic variables including age, gender, and sarcopenia potential were not significantly associated with intention to use. Horizontal individualism is significantly associated with intention to use (p=.011). Also, horizontal collectivism is significantly associated with intention to use (p=.018). Vertical collectivism interacts with persuasive health communication to predict intention to use among older adults (p=.041). The final model (F(12,141) = 3.699, p<.001, R2=.24) which included cultural value orientations showed significant improvement from the first model which only included age and gender. Overall, the final model accounted for 23.9% of the variance. This study is the first to predict the intention to use wearable robots among older adults and provide valuable insights on future policy development to promote aging-in-place, with the aid of wearable robots.

Does a brief contact-based video intervention reduce public mental health stigma associated with psychosis in a collectivistic society? A randomised control study

PurposeInternationally, among mental health difficulties, psychosis appears most stigmatised. Yet, research on mental health education specific to psychosis, including stigma reduction strategies, is limited. This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of a brief empirically informed indirect contact-based intervention (CBI) on reducing stigma associated with psychosis in the context of a Southeast Asian society.Design/methodology/approachIn total, 168 young adults were randomised into three groups, two intervention conditions and one active control. Stigmatisation levels were measured at pre-intervention, post-intervention and at a 30-day follow-up. Group differences in attitudes were analysed using a 3 × 3 two-way mixed-subjects ANOVA.FindingsResults revealed that there were no significant differences in declared stigma between the three conditions. However, a significant effect of time on the improvement of attitudes was observed at post-intervention. This effect was not sustained at follow-up.Social implicationsIndividual psychoeducational CBIs implemented in the context of collectivistic societies do not produce sustainable effects in the reduction of stigma. Although a transient desirable improvement in the attitudes occurs among individuals, this is subsequently counteracted by the influence of stigma existing on a systemic level. Therefore, public mental health education in collectivistic cultures should address societal mechanisms maintaining unhelpful perceptions of those with psychosis.Originality/valueThe study examined the effect of brief CBIs on the reduction of stigma associated with psychosis in a collectivistic society and demonstrated systemic limitations of individually delivered psychoeducational interventions.

The role of religion and spirituality in counseling: experience of counsellors in a collectivist society

ABSTRACTThis qualitative study aims to understand the role of religion and spirituality in counseling from the experience of Malaysian counselors. The study participants comprised twelve counselors with experience integrating religion and spirituality into their practice. Data was collected using individual semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. The data was then analyzed using thematic analysis. Four themes emerged from the study, namely: (i) religion and spirituality give meaning to life, (ii) building self-reliance, and (iii) strengthening relationships with God and fellow human beings. Implications of the study to research and practice are discussed.

Leveraging environmental corporate social responsibility to promote green purchases: The case of new energy vehicles in the era of sustainable development

Leveraging on the theoretical integration of stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) theory, stakeholder theory, and self-consistency theory, an investigation is undertaken to explore the effectiveness of environmental corporate social responsibility (ECSR) in shaping green buying intentions using the world’s largest economy of new energy vehicles (NEVs), China, as a case. An analysis of data from 306 NEV owners in four Chinese cities demonstrated that ECSR directly and indirectly, via green trust and green brand image, shapes green purchasing intentions positively. However, green self-concept consistency was found to weaken the connections ECSR, green trust, and green brand image. From a theoretical perspective, this exploration enhances our understanding of environmentally-driven micro-CSR (individual-level CSR) by shedding light on the factors influencing consumers' intentions to engage in green consumption (new energy) of high involvement products (vehicles). Noteworthily, this examination uncovers the social-psychological mechanisms that drive these intentions and underscores the significance of maintaining consistency in self-concept, particularly within collectivist societies. From a practical standpoint, this research offers valuable guidance for marketing approaches, particularly in the NEV sector, thereby contributing to SDG7 on clean energy and SDG12 on responsible consumption and production.

Intrinsic and Extrinsic Life Goals of University Students: Orientation and Role in Educational Success

Self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) describes life goals as being intrinsic goals and extrinsic goals. The intrinsic goals include self-acceptance, affiliation, and community feeling; however, financial success, image, and popularity are extrinsic goals. The theory suggests that intrinsic goals are positively related to human functioning and wellbeing, while extrinsic goals are negatively related to it. Empirical studies conducted in developed and individualist societies support the theory. This study explores these life goals of university students in a developing and collectivist society of Pakistan. The study also investigates the relationship of these goals with critical thinking skills and academic achievement of the students. The data was collected from 193 male and female students, aged above 18 at a public sector university in Karachi. It was a survey and the study used self-administered questionnaires on demographics, intrinsic and extrinsic life goals, critical thinking skills, and academic achievement. The analysis revealed that students’ intrinsic goals were significantly higher than their extrinsic goals. Also, it was found that intrinsic goals were significantly positively linked to their critical thinking, and extrinsic goals were significantly positively linked to their achievement. The findings conclude that university students are more intrinsically oriented than they are extrinsically oriented. Also, extrinsic goals may not undermine students’ educational success in developing and/or collectivist cultures. Therefore, it is recommended that students' extrinsic goals may not be condemned by the teachers, parents and society. There is a need for more research into intrinsic and extrinsic life goals in various cultural and socioeconomic contexts.

The relationship between transformational leadership and affective commitment: a study of Arab non-formal education coordinators in Israel

ABSTRACT The research aims to investigate the correlation between managers’ transformational leadership styles (TLS) and their communication patterns with non-formal education coordinators in schools (Social-Community Education Coordinators, or SCEC) and non-formal education coordinators in local government youth departments (NFEC) within Arab society in Israel. The study, which is quantitative in nature, included 131 coordinators (85 SCEC and 46 NFEC) who responded to a questionnaire. The findings indicate that the effect of TLS on the coordinators’ affective commitment is fully mediated by organizational communications. Additionally, differences were observed between SCEC and NFEC; SCEC reported that their managers exhibited more transformational, idealistic behavior, were more inspirationally motivating, and promoted better communication than NFEC reported. These findings offer new insights into the role of leadership styles in NFE among minority groups at the global level and in collectivist societies.

How Do Individualism and Collectivism Influence Pro-Environmental Purchasing Behavior Based on Environmental Self-Identity?

Consumer behavior contributes to the environmental crisis worldwide. This study examines the influence of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism (HVIC) on pro-environmental purchasing behavior based on environmental self-identity. We surveyed 542 Korean adults aged 20–69 online. We analyzed the data using correlation, paired t-tests, and multiple regression analyses. First, we found that the group with high-level environmental self-identity showed significantly higher levels of pro-environmental purchasing behavior, horizontal individualism (HI), horizontal collectivism (HC), and vertical collectivism (VC). No significant difference was observed in vertical individualism (VI). Second, in the low-level group, the influencing factors were gender (ref. female), age, VI, and VC. Third, in the high-level group, the influencing factors were HC, HI, and VC. Cultural values are an important aspect of pro-environmental purchasing behavior based on environmental self-identity.

Development and Validation of Korean ‘COVID-blues’ Social Syndrome Scale

This study focuses on measuring the effects of COVID-19 on mental health both at cultural and individual levels. Although many COVID-19 studies used previous COVID-19 measurements such as FCV-19S, GAD-7, PHQ-9, DASS-21, CSS, CAS, or CSI, these clinical psychology measurements did not include cultural aspects as suggested by pathogen prevalence hypothesis : Pathogen prevalence argues that psychological responses of collectivists involve clinical response as well as cultural group response, driven by strong collectivism. This study developed new “COVID-blues” scale that measure individual and cultural aspects of COVID-stress in collectivistic society context. Specifically, this study developed and validated 25-items that measure individual loneliness, fear, social anger, and socioeconomic consequences. Results of this study indicated that: (1) COVID-related stress can occur at both the individual and cultural levels, and (2) COVID-blues not only increase fear but also anger; that is, the higher the score on the COVID-blues scale, the higher the fear and anger of each individual. The findings presented robust 25-item multidimensional COVID-blues scale which can be used for conducting future health communication studies using theories such as health belief model, theory of planned behavior, or social cognitive theory in collective countries such as South Korea.

Importance of perceived social support for HIV/AIDS patients in Pakistan: a collectivist society

ABSTRACT Background Research related to HIV stigma is in its initial stages in Pakistan. With the recent increase in HIV cases among injection drug users, there is a growing need to study the psychosocial aspects of the disease to address and mitigate the factors associated with stigma. HIV stigma has been identified as a contributor to depression and a barrier to effective treatment. Aim This study examines the moderating role of perceived social support from three sources, i.e., family, friends, and significant others, in reducing the impact of HIV stigma on depression among individuals living with HIV in Pakistan. Methodology 150 male HIV patients were approached whose likely mode of infection was through injection drug usage. The study explored the moderating role of three sources of perceived social support. Semi-structured interviews and standardized measurements were employed to assess levels of stigma, depression, and perceived social support. Results The findings indicated that family support emerged as the most effective moderating factor in the relationship between HIV/AIDS stigma and depression. Support from significant others was observed as the second one. However, the study did not find substantial moderating effects from friends’ support on the relationship between stigma and depression. Conclusion In Pakistan, where a collectivist societal structure prevails, interventions to reduce HIV/AIDS stigma should focus on strengthening the family support system for patients. The study’s outcomes underscore the importance of tailored interventions that consider the cultural context to mitigate the adverse impact of HIV stigma on mental health of people living with HIV.

Leader-member exchange and organizational citizenship behaviour: The moderator effects of subordinates’ horizontal collectivism orientation and team-member exchange

Past research has not clearly explained why the quality of leader-member exchange (LMX) is weakly related to organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) in non-Western cultures. Hence, this study explores subordinates’ cultural value orientation and team member exchange (TMX) as boundary conditions of the effects of LMX on citizenship behaviour directed at individual organizational members (OCBI) and citizenship behaviour directed at the organization as a whole (OCBO). The research hypotheses were tested using a sample of 392 supervisor-subordinate dyads from organizations across different sectors in Ghana. The results support our theorizing that horizontal collectivism and TMX strengthen the relationship between LMX and OCBI such that the relationship is stronger for horizontal collectivists and under a high TMX context. However, the results did not support the hypothesized moderator effects of horizontal collectivism and TMX on the LMX-OCBO relationship. The theoretical contributions, managerial implications and avenues for further research are discussed.

Trust in relationships: a preliminary investigation of the influence of parental divorce, breakup experiences, adult attachment style, and close relationship beliefs on dyadic trust.

Trust is essential for establishing stable and fulfilling romantic relationships between partners. Development of trust, however, can be assumed to depend on many factors related to an individual's earlier experiences and relationship-related beliefs. This study aimed to investigate how adult attachment style (anxious, avoidant), experiences about parents' divorce and breakdown of one's own romantic relationship, and relationship beliefs are related to the level of dyadic trust in romantic relationships. The present study included 131 Turkish undergraduate university students (55.7% women) from different faculties. The research instrument had questions about parents' and respondents' own relationship status, Dyadic Trust Scale (DTS), Experiences in Close Relationships Inventory-Revised (ECR-R), and Inventory of Close Relationship Beliefs (ICRB), in addition to background questions. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, Pearson correlations, regression analyses and mediation analyses. Respondents whose parents had divorced or who had experienced a relationship breakdown had lower dyadic trust scores than those without these experiences. The trust scores correlated negatively with anxious and avoidant attachment styles and positively with relationship belief scales, although the correlations to "external factors" were not statistically significant. In regression analysis, anxious and avoidant attachment styles explained 42% and relationship beliefs 25% of the variance in trust. The only significant predictor among beliefs was "individuality." Mediation analysis showed that the effects of anxious attachment style on trust were fully mediated by the relationship belief in "individuality." The avoidant attachment style had a direct relationship to trust. The results show that anxious attachment style influences trust via relationship beliefs, while avoidant attachment style has a strong direct effect on trust as well as weaker effects via beliefs. The results are discussed in the context of Turkish culture and horizontal collectivism.

How cultural values integrate with each other to trigger sustainable consumption: a cross-culture study

PurposeThis cross-culture study aims to investigate how two cultural values, collectivism (COL) and long-term orientation (LTO), integrate with each other to trigger green consumption.Design/methodology/approachUsing data from three consumer surveys in Vietnam, South Korea and Poland, this study employs polynomial regression with response surface analysis as a methodological approach to assess the complementary, balanced and imbalanced effects of cultural dimensions (COL and LTO) on consumers' green purchase intention (GPI) and behaviors.FindingsFirst, this study found that, in Vietnam, both COL and LTO had a significant positive effect on GPI. However, only COL demonstrated a significant effect on GPI in South Korea and Poland. Second, this study also revealed that, in all three countries, when COL and LTO were in agreement, the degree of GPI was higher when COL and LTO were higher. The findings also showed that an increase in the imbalance between COL and LTO integration in the Vietnam sample led to a decrease in consumers' GPI. However, this relationship was insignificant in the South Korea and Poland samples.Originality/valueThis study enriches the understanding of green purchase behavior (GPB) and its underlying cultural factors within a cross-cultural framework. In particular, it enhances the knowledge of the debated relationship between different facets of cultural values (specifically, COL and LTO) and pro-environmental behavior, shedding light on this complex relationship in the context of the three different countries.

Cross-Cultural comparison of TikTok uses and gratifications

ABSTRACT This cross-cultural study examines the differences in TikTok use among users from the United States, Spain, and Chile. A survey, in English, European Spanish, and Latin American Spanish respectively, was administered to 556 TikTok users across the three countries. These users shared similar demographic characteristics, and multigroup measurement models were established to support cross-country measurement invariance. Our results show that Chilean TikTokers are the least engaged on the platform, but have more followers on average than their American and Spanish counterparts. Additionally, users’ motivations for and uses of TikTok are associated with their countries’ national cultural values. For instance, TikTok users in Chile and Spain, which are collectivistic societies, view the platform as a socialisation tool more than users in the individualistic United States. Lastly, Chileans, who have a high uncertainty avoidance level, tend to avoid self-expression and archiving on TikTok compared to Americans, who have a low uncertainty avoidance level.

Why they do not care? Exploring young Indonesians' low participation in proenvironmental activities

PurposeYouths are known as a challenging group to be engaged in environmental programs due to their fickle characteristic. This study would like to offer Global South and developing countries' perspectives by using Indonesia as a case study. This study gives a lesson about the top-down approach in Indonesia's proenvironmental program and its trajectories toward youth participation.Design/methodology/approachUsing a case study approach, this article tries to deeply understand the issues happening in Indonesia, particularly among the young people living in several cities in Indonesia. The author was helped by the first participant, a student with experience with air pollution campaigns. Using snowball approach, the authors was helped by the first participant to contact with her friends from different cities to join as the participant in this research. To obtain their dynamic perspectives, the researcher conducted three focus group discussions via Zoom, each with a duration of 1.5–2 h. The researcher asked for their written permission to be participants through WhatsApp text and then verbally via Zoom video call. This research was done during the lockdown status of COVID-19 pandemic; thus, it was advised to do every research activity online. Based on their experience, the participants were divided into three groups: volunteers, influencers and university students aged 18–21. These Focus Group Discussion (FGD) results were transcribed and coded into behavior, peer support and knowledge by the author.FindingsThis study found that youths in Indonesia are concerned about the community's perspective on the environment; thus, their behavior will mirror others as part of a collectivist society. Parents, friends and the community are their role models when practicing proenvironmental behavior. Next, environmental education should be embedded in school curricula and religious centers. In addition, they should apply an open and democratic approach to reach youths' participation effectively. Programs and curricula with a top-down approach should be avoided to maintain sustainable actions. Last, there is an urgent need to develop citizens' literacy about environmental issues because it will highly influence young generations.Research limitations/implicationsThere should be more discussion on developing environmental knowledge for citizens at large. First, the next research should focus on the curricula development in formal and nonformal organisations, focusing on youths' voices during the process. In a proenvironmental program, honoring and prioritizing youth voices is central to youth work. Second, there should be further research on using a democratic approach for building conversation and discussion on environmental issues rather than a top-down approach. Further, researchers must focus on Indonesians' literacy in general, especially older and mature citizens, since their perspective will affect youths' behavior in the long term. These positive attitudes cannot be perceived and sustained if the community comments negatively toward proenvironmental behavior. Last, there is a lack of exploration to the influencers group to show their differences with other groups. Other researchers could further explore this in the future.Practical implicationsMultiple approaches must be used continuously to ask and seek youths' opinions, listen to what youths want and then prioritize them in the program. Rather than using programmatic design and delivery to shape social attitudes and behavior, campaigners should discuss with youths and influencers on creating their campaigns rather than maintain the program's sustainability. Environmental campaign messages should integrate with creative storytelling to build engagement with young people. By implementing this, youths could share their expressions using photography, narration, music, etc.Originality/valueIndonesia becomes a significant case study for this research due to its political and cultural system. Indonesia is known as a paternalistic and corporatist country where the practice of citizenship is challenged by the issue of power dynamics and imbalance. Therefore, a top-down communication is a common practice to create a quick-fix solution to foster productivity. Further, Indonesia has an environmental problem which made it vital for climate study. Globally, Indonesia ranks third in greenhouse gas emission after China and India. Recently, its capital city, Jakarta, is ranked as the worst-polluted city in the world.

Regenerative economy: A pathway to a future-ready, sustainable Africa

ABSTRACT Africa is experiencing a period of rapid economic growth, booming population, and migration as biodiversity is deteriorating and the climate is warming. Together, these represent grand societal and environmental challenges. The African Union and the United Nations both promote sustainable development, in which society and nature flourish as the economy progresses. However, achieving this goal is not self-evident. We discuss the concept of regenerative economy and propose it as a path forward for the African context. We identify three levers of action evident in Africa that promote the idea of regenerative economy: clean innovation in technology and business models, leapfrogging through decentralized communication and energy systems, and leveraging African values of horizontal collectivism. We present some case examples of how this can and does work but highlight that achieving regenerative economy en masse depends on scaling up business models, effective governance structures, and capacity building in Africa. If implemented correctly, regenerative economy can offer pathways to a future-ready, sustainable Africa.

'Coming out'/self-disclosure in LGBTQ+ adolescents and youth: International and Indian scenario - A narrative review of published studies in the last decade (2012-2022).

People who identify themselves as Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and others (LGBTQ+) go through a process of self-exploration and self-identification during adolescence, and the process resolves when one decides to self-disclosure. The experience of 'Coming Out' (CO) can be positive, leading to acceptance and a feeling of liberation, or it can be harmful, leading to stigma, humiliation, and discrimination, subsequently leading to significant psychological distress. This study was to do a narrative review on the studies published in the area/topic of CO in youth in the last decade (2012-2022) and to look for factors that act as barriers and facilitators of CO. Additionally, we have tried to look for differences in CO in LGBTQ+ adolescents and youth in the Western world vis-a-vis Indian/Eastern societies. An extensive literature search in electronic databases, PUBMED, Web of Science, EMBASE, Medline, Scopus, and search engine 'Google Scholar' using specific search terms and assessment of all published articles until 20th May 2023 was done. Twenty-three studies were found eligible for data extraction, which discussed the problems faced during the CO process. Most of the studies are from developed countries, and only one is from India. Eleven were qualitative studies, 11 were cross-sectional studies, and one was a case study. The qualitative studies focused on generating themes of CO along with various issues/problems faced by the participants. The cross-sectional studies mainly explored parental reactions, stigma, parental support, psychological distress, and perceived stress in the participants. Major themes emerging from the qualitative studies were the experience of prejudice from various strata of society, such as parental, societal, racial, cultural, and religious factors that lead to problems of hiding, internalized homophobia, and anticipatory rejections that put this population under extreme conditions. Limited research is available from Eastern societies. More recently, the new generation of adolescents has taken the help of social media platforms for self-disclosure. CO is an elaborate multi-step process that considers the presence of parental/family and societal support, cultural/traditional values, and several psychosocial factors that determine the degree of positive outcomes. Emerging data indicated an improved trend of adolescents deciding to come out to families or in online platforms, both of which are associated with challenges, more in eastern collectivistic societies and developing countries.

Concept of Privacy in India: A Socio-Legal Critique

This article provides an incisive view on how the concept of privacy has evolved in India despite being a collectivist society. It has been observed that the notion of privacy co-existed with collectivist tradition even in ancient India. However, the collectivist approach was too dominant to allow an open discussion on the concept of privacy in the country. However, constitutional activists started vouching for privacy towards the fag end of 19th century which continued till the making of the constitution in independent India. However, the right to privacy remained outside the purview of fundamental rights till Supreme Court of India declared it as intrinsic to the fundamental right of life and liberty inherently protected under Article 21 of the constitution. Earlier judgements of the Supreme Court of India on various cases revolving around protection of privacy of individuals make strong case laws for privacy in the country culminating in the landmark judgement of privacy in 2017. This article adds value to the existing discourse on privacy by critiquing the issue from a socio-legal perspective.

A Tale of Two Cultures: Comparing Interpersonal Information Disclosure Norms on Twitter

We present an exploration of cultural norms surrounding online disclosure of information about one's interpersonal relationships (such as information about family members, colleagues, friends, or lovers) on Twitter. The literature identifies the cultural dimension of individualism versus collectivism as being a major determinant of offline communication differences in terms of emotion, topic, and content disclosed. We decided to study whether such differences also occur online in context of Twitter when comparing tweets posted in an individualistic (U.S.) versus a collectivist (India) society. We collected more than 2 million tweets posted in the U.S. and India over a 3 month period which contain interpersonal relationship keywords. A card-sort study was used to develop this culturally-sensitive saturated taxonomy of keywords that represent interpersonal relationships (e.g., ma, mom, mother). Then we developed a high-accuracy interpersonal disclosure detector based on dependency-parsing (F1-score: 86%) to identify when the words refer to a personal relationship of the poster (e.g., "my mom" as opposed to "a mom"). This allowed us to identify the 400K+ tweets in our data set which actually disclose information about the poster's interpersonal relationships. We used a mixed methods approach to analyze these tweets (e.g., comparing the amount of joy expressed about one's family) and found differences in emotion, topic, and content disclosed between tweets from the U.S. versus India. Our analysis also reveals how a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods are needed to uncover these differences; Using just one or the other can be misleading. This study extends the prior literature on Multi-Party Privacy and provides guidance for researchers and designers of culturally-sensitive systems.