Cold Desert Climate Research Articles

Water and nitrogen use efficiencies in cotton production: A meta-analysis

ContextCotton production is influenced by water and nitrogen (N). However, the magnitude and direction of seed cotton yield, water use efficiency (WUE) and N use efficiency (NUE) responses to water and N inputs varied among the available studies due to different experimental and environmental factors (such as cotton varieties, climate types and irrigation systems). ObjectiveTo quantify the relationships between water and N inputs and seed cotton yield, WUE and NUE and estimate the potential for water and N optimization, 61 studies conducted in 9 countries were collected to establish a meta database. MethodsThe relationships between water and N inputs and the interesting response variables were studied using a linear mixed-effects model in a partially restricted dataset. And the potential for water and N optimization was discussed using a meta-analysis in three classified datasets. Results and conclusionsTotal water and N inputs had significant positive effects on seed cotton yield. WUE was negatively related to water input and positively related to N input, while NUE was positively related to water input and unrelated to N input. Negative interaction between water and N inputs existed in WUE and NUE, and the interaction was relatively large in NUE compared to in WUE. Reducing over-optimal water input to optimal may increase seed cotton yield by 12.3%, WUE by 25.0% and NUE by 2.2%. Similarly, reducing over-optimal N input to optimal may increase seed cotton yield and WUE by about 16.0% and NUE by 44.6%. There was great potential for optimizing water and N inputs in arid and hot desert climate (BWh) comparing with in arid and cold desert climate (BWk) and arid and cold steppe climate (BSk), and the seed cotton yield, WUE and NUE can be increased by up to around 35.0%, 16.6% and 34.5%, respectively. Surface irrigation had greater potential to optimize water and N inputs than drip irrigation, and the seed cotton yield and WUE can be increased by up to 50.7% and 43.0%, respectively. SignificanceThe findings provided suggestions for improving irrigation and fertilization in cotton production.

Impact of Soiling Physicochemistry on Mirrors With CSP Applications at the Plataforma Solar Del Desierto De Atacama, Chile

The context of global economic instability and armed conflicts has caused fossil fuels to reach unprecedented levels. In this sense, Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technology has proven to be an excellent option to diversify the energy matrix dependent on fossil fuels, especially in places where there is a good quality solar resource, such as desert areas. These good qualities can be overshadowed by local phenomena such as soiling that can affect the viability of a project. In this paper, the effect of soiling on CSP mirrors installed in a cold desert climate in the Atacama Desert, Chile, is presented. During the 202 days (continuous) of outdoor exposure, atmospheric parameters such as humidity and temperature, as well as reflectance were evaluated daily. At the end of the experiment, the chemical composition of the material deposited on the mirror surface was analyzed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and elemental analysis (EDX). The characterization of the material detected the presence of Gypsum (soluble salt), which was shown to have the ability to cement the deposited material. The atmospheric parameters showed that the relative humidity at the site can exceed 60%, sufficient values to solubilize the Gypsum, producing the cementation process. The reflectance values showed that the effect of the cemented material, for 202 days of exposure, can reach a 47% loss of its reflective capacity. This means that the longer the exposure time, the greater the effect of the cementation and the more energy will be needed to clean the mirrors.

Thermal and energy efficiency study of passive heating and cooling systems in Morocco's cold desert climate

This research aims to showcase the imperative of integrating passive cooling and heating techniques within buildings to effectively decrease energy consumption. To accomplish this objective, numerical simulations were conducted on a representative double-walled brick building in two cold desert climates using TRNSYS software. The simulations were performed to compare and evaluate the thermal and energy performance of two distinct passive techniques, one for cooling the reflective roof and the other for heating the Trombe wall (TW). The findings demonstrate that employing a reflective roof building with an air gap significantly reduces indoor temperatures by 3 °C during the hottest weekdays of summer, as compared to the reference building, across the two studied Moroccan climates. Moreover, this approach decreases the demand for cooling energy by an impressive 69–78 %. Similarly, the passive heating technique proves highly effective during winter, reducing energy requirements by 26–30 % while increasing indoor temperatures by over 2.9 °C. Combining both techniques proves to be the most efficient solution, resulting in a 37.87 % reduction in total annual energy consumption for cooling and heating in Er-Rachidia and a 30 % reduction in Ifran. These results strongly support the suggestion that Moroccan thermal regulations should incentivize the adoption of passive cooling and heating systems, particularly in cold desert climates.

Improving energy and water consumption of a data center via air free-cooling economization: The effect weather on its performance

In the past two decades, data centers have significantly grown in size and number around the globe, leading to substantial energy and water stress wherever they operate. Thermal management typically represents half of the total energy consumption in traditional data centers. This work studies the energy and water savings that air-side free-cooling yields under diverse weather conditions. We modeled a free-cooling system and a conventional data center using MATLAB. The hourly weather data was obtained from a publicly available online repository for the Chilean territory. Using air-side free-cooling for data center thermal management is feasible in various weather conditions. Locations with colder temperatures (< 20 °C) and higher humidity (> 60%) are more favorable as they require minimal use of the chiller and/or humidifier. These conditions are present in BSk’(s) Cold Semi-arid climate with dry summer and oceanic influence, as well as Csb’ Mediterranean climate (warm summer) with oceanic influence. However, locations with drier air (< 50%) and warmer temperatures (> 20 °C), such as those found in ET(w) Tundra climate with dry winter, BWk(w) Cold Desert climate with dry winter, or BSk(s) Cold Semi-arid climate with dry summer, are less suitable for air free cooling. Even under suboptimal energy and water savings, the air-side economizer still performed considerably better than a conventional data center cooling method (using CRAH units).

Life cycle assessment of the inclusion of phase change materials in lightweight buildings

This research evaluates environmental impact of including phase change materials in the envelope of lightweight buildings constructed off-site with dimensions 2.5 × 2.5 × 2.43 m3, located in the cities of Antofagasta and Calama, both in Chile. These cities are located in a cold desert climate zone, corresponding to a Köppen Climate Classification subtype “BWk”, with an average annual temperature difference of 4.8 °C.To evaluate the environmental impact quantitatively from “cradle to grave” life cycle assessment was used, it is a methodology based on International Organization for Standardization 14,040 and 14,044 standards. With this methodology, the manufacturing and operational phases and environmental payback period were evaluated.Results show that phase change materials addition in walls and roof of a building decreases electric energy (52.8 % in Antofagasta and 36.3 % in Calama) consumption and environmental impact while in operation, corresponding to 51.4 % and 84.4 % in the cities of Antofagasta and Calama, respectively.In addition, cubicles with phase change materials exhibit an environmental payback period below 15 %. Therefore, a decision of using phase change materials for lightweight buildings could be made in any subtype “BWk” area of Köppen climate classification.

Studies on urban park cooling effects and their driving factors in China: Considering 276 cities under different climate zones

Continuous urbanization and future climate change will bring serious urban heat island effects (UHIs) in cities, resulting in more intensive urban heat risks. It has attracted more attentions to mitigate UHIs, and urban parks have been regarded as one promising measurement, due to their cooling effects. However, present studies have not comprehensively explored urban park cooling effects (PCEs) at the regional scale, especially considering park landscapes and climate zones. In order to better present PCEs and their driving factors, 12,780 urban parks in 276 Chinese cities were crawled, and they were across seven Köppen-Geiger climate zones. All these urban parks were clustered into four categories of the Green Park, the Blue Park, the Mixed Park and the Grey Park, according to their landscapes. Our studies presented that PCEs increased a little with the latitude in China, and limited differences of PCEs existed between megacities and other cities. The Green Park and the Blue Park presented better cooling effects in all climate zones, but there existed great differences among different climate zones. The cold desert climate zone (BWk) had better PCEs than other climate zones, due to its higher potential evaporation. For most climate zones, park landscape factors presented larger contributions to PCEs than other factors of park surrounding conditions and local climate, and thus park landscapes played the dominant role in PCEs. Although the Blue Park with less park area (0.27–0.68 ha) could have better cooling efficiency than the Green Park (0.30–0.55 ha) in most climate zones, local water resources and economic costs should be considered for urban park planning. Climate change could have great impacts on PCEs, and 42% of all urban parks will present less PCEs in future. Considering multiple services, it is of high importance to tradeoff between their PCEs and recreation services for future urban planning and urban parks structure.

Determining the effect of climate and profession on dry eye disease: A prevalence study among young males in north, north-west and central India

BackgroundOcular tear film and the ocular surface together represent a dynamic playground of various protective factors against environmental influencers. Surrounding environment and geoclimatic milieu are the pertinent and continuous influencing factors. Prevalence study of Dry eye disease (DED) in various climatic conditions and professions provides an insight into this peculiar aspect of DED and human geography. MethodsThis was a hospital based, cross-sectional, comparative, analytical observational study. 1840 young soldiers between 25 and 45 years of age were studied. Divided in five climate groups based on Köppen–Geiger climate classification system the subjects were sub-grouped into professions exposed to known aggravating environmental factors. The ocular surface was examined for signs and symptoms of DED and its prevalence and risk ratio for different climates and professions were calculated. ResultsHighest prevalence of DED was found in cold desert climate and among visual display unit (VDU) users. Least prevalence was seen in highland type of climate and among people involved in professional exposed to high temperature. Prevalence of DED based upon the signs and ocular surface disease index (OSDI) was calculated and stratified with risk ratio for climatic conditions and professions. ConclusionDifferent climatic conditions and professions had different prevalence of signs, symptoms of OSD and DED which indicated its influence on prevalence of the disease.

Hygrothermal performance of multilayer straw walls in different climates

Straw is becoming a promising alternative insulation material to improve the building energy performance because of its low cost, large availability as cereal waste, its good hygrothermal properties, and its low embodied energy. The goal of this paper is to assess the hygrothermal performance of multi-layered straw walls with different boundary conditions. The study consists of evaluating five different straw-based wall assemblies, under a continental (Arkhangelsk, Russia), a tropical climate (Brasilia, Brazil), a temperate Mediterranean climate (Nice, France), and a cold desert climate Xinjiang (China). Numerical models of the heat and moisture transfer through the walls using WUFI software are developed, calibrated, and validated through experimental results from the literature. The chosen evaluation criteria are the total water content, the drying rate, the condensation risk, the mold growth, the moisture quantity, the time lag, and the decrement factor. Results show that straw walls with cement and/or wood covering can be used in tropical and temperate climates, coated straw walls with additional air layers in dry climates, while insulated straw walls are best fitted in continental climates. In the latter, the dryness rate varies between 7 and 40% with a low condensation risk of value in the range of 0–12%. It can be concluded that the straw wall’s performance strongly depends on the interior and exterior added thermal insulation layers since they affect the ability of the material to dry out.

Assessment of Water Resources Availability in Amu Darya River Basin Using GRACE Data

Water is diminishing in many places of the globe due to human intervention and climate variability. This study was conducted to assess water sustainability in the Amu Darya basin, the largest river catchment of central Asia, using two Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellite solutions with a spatial resolution of 0.5°. Spatial variability of water sustainability was estimated by integrating reliability, resiliency and vulnerability. In addition, the Modified Mann–Kendall (MMK) test was utilized to detect the significant trends in water availability. Findings show a significant decline in the basin’s water supply, especially after 2010. Water availability was more variable in the east and a small area in the south. Trend analysis revealed higher declination in water availability in the range of −0.04 to −0.08 cm/year in the tundra and warm dry continental climate zones and the delta region of the basin ending in the Aral Sea in the cold desert climate zone. Water resources in the cold semi-arid (steppe) and most parts of the cold desert climate are more sustainable than the rest of the basin. Overall, the results indicate that water resources availability in a large-scale basin with climate diversity could be well assessed using the method used in this study.

Effects of Nanofertilizers (Mg and Fe) and Planting Data on Productivity and Quality of Potato Tubers in Cold Desert Climate

Interaction among nanofertilizers supply and planting data may yield synergistic outputs that could influence nutrient use efficiency. To provide insight on this phenomenon, a double split plot based on RCBD with 3 replications were laid out to evaluate the effects spraying solution of nanoparticles magnesium (Mg) and iron (Fe); 0.0 %, 1.0 %, and 2.0 % at flowering and tuber filling stages) and planting data (October 5, 2019 and October 25, 2019) on bioelements, protein nitrogen, and nitrates contents of Sante potato tubers in a cold desert climate (Kerman, Iran). Considering the control group, the use of different dosages of nanofertilizers resulted in a significant increase in the bioelements and pH contents. Besides effects of area and time of planting, their two and three effects on tuber chlorophyll contents were reported significant. The highest protein and nitrogen portion of the potato tubers were related to spraying solution of Mg (1.0 %) + Fe (2.0 %) nanofertilizers. Increasing nanofertilizers supplementation reduced the nitrate content of potato tubers. The results indicated that the application of nanofertilizers significantly increased the carotenoid portion of the potato tubers. The interaction effects of nanofertilizers and planting data on chlorophyll index and calcium levels of potato tuberswere completely significant. Our analysis corroborated that application nanofertilizers by spraying during flowering and tuber filling stages enhances potato productivity and quality by improving bioelements or resulting in favorable physiological outcomes and is recommended to farmers.

First report of stem smut caused by Tranzscheliella hypodytes (Schltdl.) Vanky & McKenzie on Leymus secalinus (Georgi) Tzvelev in India.

Leymus secalinus (Blue wild rye) is a perennial grass species distributed in Leh-Ladakh region of India. Culms are usually solitary, 20-100 cm tall, 2-5-noded, smooth and glabrous. It is found on mountain slopes, rocky, stony and pebbled soils, grassy places, river banks, sandy and alkaline soils. It is one of the dominant species of the region and is mostly used for forage and grazing. L. secalinus plants with blackish-brown powdery spore mass/sori on the culm was observed in Leh region of Jammu and Kashmir, India during a wheat germplasm exploration (to collect wild relatives, land races, cultivars etc. of cultivated wheat) in September, 2018. Initially, sori were covered by the leaf sheath and at later stage more or less exposed with the absence of peridium. Infected culms and leaves are stunted, while inflorescences are abortive. Spores are globose, sub-globose to ovoid, blackish-brown in color, 3-5 x 4-4.5 µm in size, wall 0.5 µm thick and smooth. The fungus was identified as Tranzscheliella hypodytes (Schltdl.) Vanky & McKenzie based on morphological characteristics (Li et al. 2017; Vanky 2012, 2003; Vanky and McKenzie 2002). The ustilospore germination was not observed on potato dextrose agar during the lab experiment. In some cases, ustilospore germination is recorded in other smut fungi which shows considerable variation according to media and conditions used (Ingold, 1983). Moreover, there is no report available for the artificial culture of T. hypodytes. Identity was confirmed using the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region of ribosomal DNA, amplified with universal primers ITS1 which was then sequenced. NCBI-BLAST showed 99.28% similarity with the ITS sequences of Tranzscheliella hypodytes (GenBank accession no. MH855460.1). The sequence was deposited in NCBI GenBank with accession number (MN108147). Pathogenecity test was conducted in glasshouse wherein smut infected samples of L. secalinus collected from Leh were made into small pieces and mixed with the sterilized soil filled in three pots before sowing. In addition, seeds were also mixed with smut spores before sowing. Inoculated pots after sowing were kept at 16±20C temperature and a relative humidity of 70% in a glass house. Control pots were maintained without inoculum. Inoculated and control pots were placed in separate chambers of the same glasshouse. Seventy days after sowing, inoculated plants were symptomatic, matching those described above and produced no seed. Pathogen reisolated from infected plants was identical in all respects to the isolate used to inoculate the plants, which confirmed the Koch's postulates. Control plants remained healthy and produced seed. Leh region is covered by sparse vegetation due to its topography and cold desert climate (cold, dry winter and warm, dry summer with very low precipitation, occuring in temperate region). Stem smut in L. secalinus can have significant negative impact on the fodder and grazing situation of the region. To our knowledge, this is the first report of stem smut caused by T. hypodytes on L. secalinus in India. A voucher specimen of the fungus was deposited at Herbarium Cryptogamae Indiae Orientialis (HCIO) (52182), ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi.

Twenty-first century-end climate scenario of Jammu and Kashmir Himalaya, India, using ensemble climate models

The study investigates the future climate change in the Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) Himalaya, India, by the end of the twenty-first century under 3 emission scenarios and highlights the changes in the distribution of the prevalent climate zones in the region. The multi-model climate high-resolution projections for the baseline period (1961–1990) are validated against the observed climate variables from 8 meteorological stations in the region. The temperature projections from the GFDL CM2.1 model are found in good agreement with the observations; however, no single model investigated in the present study reasonably simulates precipitation and therefore multi-model ensemble is used for precipitation projections. The average annual temperature is projected to increase by 4.5 °C, 3.98 °C, and 6.93 °C by the end of the twenty-first century under A1B, RCP4.5, and RCP8.5 scenarios, respectively. In contrast, an insignificant variation in precipitation projection is observed under all the 3 scenarios. The analysis indicates that, unlike the 13 climate zones under the updated Köppen-Geiger climate classification scheme, the J&K Himalaya broadly falls into 10 main climate zones only namely, “3 subtropical (~ 11%), 4 temperate (~ 19%), and 3 cold desert (~ 70%) zones”. The projected climate change under the 3 emission scenarios indicates significant changes in the distribution of prevalent climate zones. The cold desert climate zone in the Ladakh region would shrink by ~ 22% and correspondingly the subtropical and temperate zones would expand due to the projected climate change. This information is vital for framing robust policies for adaptation and mitigation of the climate change impacts on various socio-economic and ecological sectors in the region.

Simulation-based performance analysis of residential direct evaporative coolers in four climate regions of Iran

In this paper, the effect of direct evaporative cooling (DEC) system design parameters, including the cooling pad saturation efficiency, the airflow rate, and the thermostat set-points on the system electricity and water consumption, is evaluated in four different climates of Iran according to Köppen-Geiger classification. EnergyPlus is used to perform the simulations for a typical residential apartment. The results show that using pads with a 30% higher saturation efficiency can significantly decrease the electricity and water consumption by up to 50.0% and 29.6%, respectively, because of the working time reduction. The maximum impact is in Esfahan city in cold desert climate as its wet-bulb temperature is lower than other investigated climates. Besides, increasing the airflow rate from 3000 m3/h to 6000 m3/h leads to 43.4%–55.2% reduction in electricity consumption in different climates, although the water consumption increases by 20.5%–58.8%. According to the results, by using the DEC system with 80% saturation efficiency and 6000 m3/h airflow rate, the average indoor relative humidity and CO2 concentration is 42.3%–48.5%, and 450 ppm–470 ppm, respectively, in different climates, which can provide acceptable indoor air quality. Increasing the saturation efficiency or decreasing the airflow rate increases the indoor relative humidity and CO2 concentration. The results are also compared with a typical packaged terminal air conditioner (PTAC). The total hours when the indoor relative humidity is out of comfort zone in the DEC system, with 60% saturation efficiency, are about 92% lower than the PTAC system, on average. Moreover, with 24/26 °C thermostat set-points, the PTAC system consumes 234%–265% more electricity than the DEC one with 80% saturation efficiency in different climates.

Advanced performance testing of anti-soiling coatings – Part I: Sequential laboratory test methodology covering the physics of natural soiling processes

The accumulation of dust and dirt on PV modules can cause significant energy yield losses, especially in dusty environments. The application of anti-soiling coatings (ASC) is seen as a promising mitigation approach to reduce cleaning frequency and thus cleaning costs. In order to examine the effectiveness of coatings, outdoor tests are usually necessary, but these are subject to varying and complex weather conditions. Therefore, an advanced laboratory soiling test setup and corresponding sequential testing procedures representing the underlying physics of soiling and self-cleaning processes were developed, aiming at fast, reliable and standardized evaluation of the anti-soiling performance of glass coatings. The methods include the control of important environmental parameters during dust deposition and a controlled dust removal by utilization of wind blow or centrifugal forces. Besides method evaluation experiments, comparative soiling experiments were performed for uncoated solar-grade float glass, an anti-reflective coating (ARC) and an ASC. The dusts used for the tests were collected from PV modules located in Dunhuang (cold desert climate, China) and Doha (hot desert climate, Qatar). For sample characterization and soiling loss determination, optical transmittance and light microscopy measurements were performed. Both wind blow and rotational force test (RFT) procedures reveal a reduced dust accumulation for the ARC and a further increased anti-soiling behavior for the ASC. The presented test results are consistent with other outdoor and laboratory soiling studies. Compared to wind blow testing, the rotational force test setup significantly improves the controllability of test parameters and provides a better selectivity of coating performance.

Storm-Water Bioinfiltration as No-Irrigation Landscaping Alternative in Semiarid Climates

In semiarid cold desert climates, bioinfiltration gardens as green infrastructure storm-water management facilities show promise to serve as both on-site storm-water management and no-irrigation landscaping. Both services must be demonstrated for bioinfiltration to be considered green infrastructure, because most urban centers in cold desert climates in the western United States (e.g., Salt Lake City, Utah; Boise, Idaho; and Denver, Colorado) must import water from the Colorado River for landscape irrigation, radically changing local and regional hydrology. To verify that storm-water runoff can sustain properly selected plants, we installed soil moisture sensors in a bioinfiltration garden in a cold desert climate with a contributing impervious area to garden area ratio of 1∶1 and monitored soil water for one summer. In spite of the small contributing impervious area, we found that the minimum soil water potential (ψ) observed was −2.5 mPa. Plants native to cold desert climates often do not show signs of water stress until ψ drops below −5 mPa, indicating the selected plants did not experience water stress in this study. We conclude that with proper site design and plant selection, plants in bioinfiltration gardens can be sustained solely by runoff. If the bioinfiltration gardens are constructed in fall, winter, or spring, no irrigation will likely be needed for establishment.

Adaptability of pregnant Merino ewes to the cold desert climate in Nevada1

Grazing ability is difficult to record in animals under free-ranging conditions without sophisticated methods. Alternatively, grazing ability may be indirectly inferred from changes in BW and production characteristics during the grazing period. The present study investigated the effect of grazing on resource-limited rangelands on BW, wool characteristics, and offspring weaning weights in nine hundred five 5/8, 7/8, and fullblood Merino ewes of 2 to 7 yr of age during a grazing period of approximately 2.5 mo (between January and March). A total of 469 ewes gave birth to a single lamb, 248 to twin lambs, and 188 did not give birth. Body weights were measured and wool samples taken before and after the ewes were allowed to graze freely on the rangelands; absolute change in BW and change in BW as a percentage of initial BW were estimated. On average, grazing on resource-poor rangelands resulted in BW loss, a reduction in fiber diameter and its CV, and increased staple length. Animals with finer wool at the start of the grazing period lost phenotypically (r = -0.07, P < 0.05) and genetically (r = -0.23, P < 0.05) less BW during the grazing period and had a greater probability to carry 1 lamb (or 2) to term (P < 0.05). Animals that lost less BW produced more greasy fleece (r = 0.09, P < 0.01). Body weight change did not significantly influence offspring weaning weights. Change in BW was moderately heritable at h(2) = 0.29; fiber diameter was strongly heritable at h(2) = 0.51. Animals with the least inclusion of Merino genetics lost more BW (P < 0.01) during the grazing period and had a more uniform fiber diameter (P < 0.05) but shorter staples (P < 0.05) and less fleece (P < 0.0001) than animals with a greater level of Merino genetics. Our results indicate that animals with finer wool appeared to be better adapted to the cold Nevada desert. Thus, selection for finer wool may positively influence adaptability to resource-limited cold climate conditions; alternatively, BW change may be selected for directly. Because nutritional deficiencies during pregnancy can have adverse consequences for the offspring, indirect selection for grazing ability would foremost result in healthier ewes that can produce lambs and wool without compromising their welfare.

Quantifying sand provenance and erosion (Marsyandi River, Nepal Himalaya)

We use petrographic and mineralogical data on modern sediments to investigate erosion patterns in the Marsyandi basin of the central Himalaya, a privileged natural laboratory in which a series of multidisciplinary geomorphological, sedimentological, geochemical and geochronological studies have been recently carried out to unravel the interrelationships between tectonic, climatic and sedimentary processes in high-relief orogenic belts. Although relative erosion patterns are effectively constrained by analyses of replicate samples along six successive tracts of the Marsyandi River, uncertainties are caused by potential compositional variation between the monsoon and post-monsoon season. Estimates of erosion rates are significantly affected by poor knowledge of total sediment flux through the basin. Our results support focused erosion of the southern, tectonically-lower part of the Greater Himalaya in the hangingwall of the MCT Zone, where the summer monsoon reaches its peak intensity (up to 5 m/a), and sediment yields and erosion rates reach 14,100 ± 3400 t/km 2 and 5.1 ± 1.2 mm/a. Erosion rates sharply decrease southward in low-relief Lesser Himalayan units (1.6 ± 0.6 mm/a), and also progressively decrease northwards in the high-altitude, tectonically-upper part of the Greater Himalaya, where rainfall decreases rapidly to < 2 m/a. Even areas of extreme topography such as the Manaslu Granite are characterized by relatively low erosion rates (2.4 ±0.9 mm/a), because precipitations become too scarce to feed significant ice flux and glacial activity. Monsoonal rainfall decreases further to < 0.5 m/a in the Tethys Himalayan zone farther north, where erosion rates are ∼ 1 mm/a. Coupling between erosion and peak monsoonal rainfall along the southern front of the Greater Himalaya is consistent with both channel-flow models of tectonic extrusion and tectonic uplift above a mid-crustal ramp. Altitude and relief are not the principal factors controlling erosion, and the central Nepal eight-thousanders may be viewed as topographic anomalies in cold desert climate at the southern edge of the Tibetan rain shadow.

FT-Raman spectroscopy of avian mummified tissue of archaeological relevance

There are frequent reports of mummified seals in the cold deserts of Antarctica. However, a mummified penguin found over 100 miles from the coast and at an altitude of 600 m is most unusual. The non-intrusive FT laser Raman spectra of untreated mummified tissues from this bird are presented; the specimen has three distinct types of tissue clearly identifiable in a limb, namely the bone, claw and skin, along with feathers from the carcass. The unusually fine preservation of these materials in an Antarctic cold desert climate means that bacterial degradation has been arrested and affords an opportunity to compare the molecular deterioration of the keratotic or collagenic components of the avian ice-mummified tissue with those from the skin of human ice-mummies.

Pliocene Paleoclimate and East Antarctic Ice-Sheet History from Surficial Ash Deposits

The preservation, age, and stratigraphic relation of an in situ ashfall layer with an underlying desert pavement in Arena Valley, southern Victoria Land, indicate that a cold-desert climate has persisted in Arena Valley during the past 4.3 million years. These data indicate that the present East Antarctic Ice Sheet has endured for this time and that average temperatures during the Pliocene in Arena Valley were no greater than 3 degrees C above present values. One implication is that the collapse of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet due to greenhouse warming is unlikely, even if global atmospheric temperatures rise to levels last experienced during mid-Pliocene times.

Optimization of south window area and wall thickness in cold climates (LEH)

The net savings (cost of fuel saved minus the cost of additional thickness of wall and the singly glazed window of the south wall) by the use of a thicker wall and glazed window on the south side have been evaluated for the cold desert climate in India (typified by Leh in Ladakh); the traditional construction implies mud walls and room temperature maintained at 25°C or 17°C by burning Kerosene oil. The thickness of the south wall and the size of window on the south wall (of a 6 × 4 × 2.7 m3 room) have been optimized for maximum savings, corresponding to room temperatures of 25°C or 17°C and the South wall made of mud or concrete; three outer finishes of the walls viz. bare natural, blackened and unglazed and blackened and glazed have been considered. Optimum insulation on the roof and the other three walls has been assumed.