Cognitive Subsystems Research Articles

The archeology of cognitive evolution.

This discussion of archeology of cognition is concerned primarily with the evolutionary emergence of the cognition particular to modern humans but there is an implication for the evolution of cognition among modern humans. Archeological evidence can provide important insights into the evolutionary emergence of human cognition, but theoretical considerations are fundamental in understanding what sorts of cognition there might have been between the ape-like common ancestor and modern humans. Archeology is the only source of evidence for the behavior associated with such theoretical stages. Cognitive archeology, therefore, involves an iterative interaction between theory from outside archeology and more or less direct evidence from the past. This review considers the range of possible evidence from archeology and genetics and summarizes some of the results of analysis of nonhuman primates particularly to assess characteristics of the last common ancestor (LCA) of apes and humans. The history of changes in size and shape of the brain since separation from other apes introduces the need to assess the appropriate cognitive theories to interpret such evidence. The review concentrates on two such approaches: Baddeley's working memory model as interpreted by Coolidge and Wynn, and Barnard's interacting cognitive subsystems as it has been elaborated to define the cognitive conditions for hominins between the LCA and modern people. Most of the rest of the review considers how the evidence from stone tools might be consistent with such theoretical models of cognition. This evidence is consistent with views that modern human behavior only emerged in the last 100,000 years (or so) but it gives an explanation for that in terms of cognition. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.

Effects of smiling manipulation on negative cognitive process during self-focused attention

The experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of smiling expression on cognitive and emotional processes during the introduction of negative mood and cognition by self-focused attention. The mechanisms underlying such effects were also examined, with reference to Interacting Cognitive Subsystems framework (Teasdale & Barnard, 1993). We induced the self-focused attention for all 33 participants but the timing and type of facial expressions manipulated differed among three conditions: control condition (required to move the facial muscles which are unrelated with smiling), buffer condition (required to "smile" before the self-focused attention), and attenuation condition (required to "smile" after the self-focused attention). The results showed that the negative mood was increased in the control group while it was decreased in two experimental groups. Furthermore, the positive mood was decreased in the control group, and increased in the buffer group. The contents of spontaneous thought during experiment were more positive among two "smile" conditions than control condition. These results suggest the importance of smiling before and during negative self-focused attention.

Working memory deficits in healthy APOE epsilon 4 carriers

Studies on the cognitive effects of APOE allele variation in healthy persons have mainly focused on episodic memory performance as most sensitive to genetic effects. The present study focuses on working memory performance, measured both in an experimental paradigm, the AX-Continuous Performance Task (AX-CPT), and in neuropsychological test paradigms of span capacity and interference control. In a highly functioning healthy group (N=186) of mean age 64.5 years we found evidence of reduced working memory performance in APOE ɛ4 carriers, with sex and ɛ4 dose as modifying variables. Several aspects of capacity and control in working memory were affected, while genetic effects were not present for measures of episodic memory. The pattern of results suggests that response inhibition is sensitive to genetic effects. In healthy individuals the broad range of neurobiological mechanisms associated with APOE is consistent with effects on non-memory cognitive subsystems, and gender effects may be modulated by interaction of APOE with myelination, androgen mechanisms, or broad patterns of age-related changes in gene expression.

Depression and attention to two kinds of meaning: A cognitive perspective

The complexity of a mental disorder such as depression is such that a way of interlinking the neural, mental and interpersonal levels is needed. This paper proposes that a theoretical framework which distinguishes, and relates, macro-theory and micro-theory at these levels can serve this purpose. The ‘Interacting Cognitive Subsystems’ approach to mental architecture is used to show how, via the detailed specification of mental processes and representations, a macro-theory of mental architecture contributes to our understanding of depressed states. In the account advanced by Teasdale and Barnard depressed states are seen as being maintained by an abnormal version of a dynamic dialogue between two qualitatively distinct types of meaning: one is referentially specific, propositional meaning, the other consists of holistic schemata rich in latent content and is called implicational meaning. In depressed states with ruminative and avoidant thought patterns, the mental function of attention is seen as being directed preferentially at propositional meanings. There is a corresponding neglect of attention to implicational meanings. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of how this approach can address transdiagnostic issues and how it may suggest new strategies for therapeutic interventions.

Externalization and Emergence: On the Status of Parameters in the Minimalist Program

1. The Tension Raised by Parameters in a Minimalist Setting It is widely assumed that the Minimalist Program imposes a boundary condition on theories of language, namely, that the human language faculty (FL) has a Principles‐and‐Parameters (P&P)-like architecture (Chomsky 1981, 1993). Hornstein et al. (2005: 5), for example, maintain that this perspective represents the “consensus view of the overall structure of the language faculty”. Accompanying this core tenet is the Strong Minimalist Thesis (SMT), which holds that FL is perfectly/optimally designed to meet the interactive needs of the languageexternal (but organism-internal) cognitive sub-systems with which it interfaces, namely, the conceptual‐intentional (C‐I) and sensorimotor (SM) systems. Taken together, these two hypotheses raise a fundamental tension that is rarely considered. One goal of this brief is to bring this issue to light in hopes of stimulating sustained productive discussion and thus begin chipping away at admittedly broad and challenging related inquiries. The basic question that the SMT raises in a P&P-model of grammar is this: To what extent would a parameter-free FL represent a departure from optimal design? One might put it another way. Why did FL evolve with flexible (i.e. parameterizable) principles over a more minimal/streamlined format consisting solely of fixed principles? We might reason that the net effect of a rigid FL would be to minimize surface language variation. From the perspective of communicative economy, this would appear to be a non-trivial boon. Thus, in light of the SMT, the P&P hypothesis raises challenging questions about the evolution of FL and the origin of parameters (i.e. the roots of language variation). Given the success of the model in resolving tensions of descriptive and explanatory adequacy, it is unlikely that the P&P lens will be abandoned anytime soon. Pursuing the SMT alongside the parameterized FL hypothesis thus forces one to confront a formidable question. In what way can the flexibility of parameterization be squared with the optimal design of FL? Before addressing this issue, it is important to acknowledge that although

Process algebraic modelling of attentional capture and human electrophysiology in interactive systems

Abstract Previous research has developed a formal methods-based (cognitive-level) model of the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems central engine, with which we have simulated attentional capture in the context of Barnard’s key-distractor Attentional Blink task. This model captures core aspects of the allocation of human attention over time and as such should be applicable across a range of practical settings when human attentional limitations come into play. In addition, this model simulates human electrophysiological data, such as electroencephalogram recordings, which can be compared to real electrophysiological data recorded from human participants. We have used this model to evaluate the performance trade-offs that would arise from varying key parameters and applying either a constructive or a reactive approach to improving interactive systems in a stimulus rich environment. A strength of formal methods is that they are abstract and the resulting specifications of the operator are general purpose, ensuring that our findings are broadly applicable. Thus, we argue that new modelling techniques from computer science can also be employed in computational modelling of the mind. These would complement existing techniques, being specifically targeted at psychological level modelling, in which it is advantageous to directly represent the distribution of control.

Cognitive processing in bipolar disorder conceptualized using the Interactive Cognitive Subsystems (ICS) model

BackgroundThere are few theoretical proposals that attempt to account for the variation in affective processing across different affective states of bipolar disorder (BD). The Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS) framework has been recently extended to account for manic states. Within the framework, positive mood state is hypothesized to tap into an implicational level of processing, which is proposed to be more extreme in states of mania.MethodThirty individuals with BD and 30 individuals with no history of affective disorder were tested in euthymic mood state and then in induced positive mood state using the Question–Answer task to examine the mode of processing of schemas. The task was designed to test whether individuals would detect discrepancies within the prevailing schemas of the sentences.ResultsAlthough the present study did not support the hypothesis that the groups differ in their ability to detect discrepancies within schemas, we did find that the BD group was significantly more likely than the control group to answer questions that were consistent with the prevailing schemas, both before and after mood induction.ConclusionsThese results may reflect a general cognitive bias, that individuals with BD have a tendency to operate at a more abstract level of representation. This may leave an individual prone to affective disturbance, although further research is required to replicate this finding.

A cognitive model of peritraumatic dissociation

Interacting cognitive subsystems (ICS; Barnard & Teasdale, 1991) is presented as a framework for understanding the impact of perceptual problems in peritraumatic dissociation. This paper analyses two peritraumatic dissociation symptoms, attention being drawn to stimuli and the experience of time slowing. ICS is described. Information processes in peritraumatic dissociation are analysed. Peritraumatic dissociative symptoms are conceptualized as problems with early processing of sensory information that result from problems of sensory feature binding. These problems are discussed in relation to experiences of fragmented memories in trauma within the context of ICS. A role for mindful attention in psychological therapy is raised.

Performance of Reactive Interfaces in Stimulus Rich Environments, Applying Formal Methods and Cognitive Frameworks

Previous research has developed a formal methods-based (cognitive-level) model of the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems central engine, with which we have simulated attentional capture in the context of Barnard's key-distractor Attentional Blink task. This model captures core aspects of the allocation of human attention over time and as such should be applicable across a range of practical settings when human attentional limitations come into play. Thus, we have used this model to evaluate the performance trade-offs that would arise from varying key parameters in Stimulus Rich Reactive Interfaces. A strength of formal methods is that they are abstract and thus, the resulting specifications of the operator are general purpose, ensuring that our findings are broadly applicable.

Integrating self-regulation theories of work motivation into a dynamic process theory

Instead of merely combining theories of self-regulation, the current paper articulates a dynamic process theory of the underlying cognitive subsystems that explain relationships among long-used constructs like goals, expectancies, and valence. Formal elements of the theory are presented in an attempt to encourage the building of computational models of human actors, thinkers, and learners in organizational contexts. Discussion focuses on the application of these models for understanding the dynamics of individuals interacting in their organizations.

Grounding the transpersonal in cognitive theory: A clinician’s perspective

This paper first considers the theory of mind in therapy, linking this with recent developments within Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, and other therapeutic modalities current within the NHS as barriers between modalities break down. The themes of different levels or modes of processing, and the centrality of relationship, are picked, up. The cognitive science based model, Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS) (Teasdale & Barnard, 1993) is introduced winch incorporates these themes into a ‘balancing act’ theory of mind. This has been echoed in other contemporary approaches, leading to the wide adoption of mindfulness in cognitive therapies, which is introduced next along with its implications for recognition of spirituality within mental health. The spiritual dimension is then considered in the light of what the ICS model suggests about the human mind. This argument leads to a fundamental theory of spirituality based on the idea of a division within human experiencing. The explanatory power of this theory, for therapy, and for a broader understanding of theory of mind and the limits of science is then considered.

Human perception and knowledge organization: visual imagery

PurposeThis paper aims to explore the theory and practice of knowledge organization and its necessary connection to human perception, and shows a solution of the potential ones.Design/methodology/approachThe author attempts to survey the problem of concept‐building and extension, as well as the determination of semantics in different aspects. The purpose is to find criteria for the choice of the solution that best incorporates users into the design cycles of knowledge organization systems.FindingsIt is widely agreed that cognition provides the basis for concept‐building; however, at the next stage of processing there is a debate. Fundamentally, what is the connection between perception and the superior cognitive processes? The perceptual method does not separate these two but rather considers them united, with perception permeating cognition. By contrast, the linguistic method considers perception as an information‐receiving system. Separate from, and following, perception, the cognitive subsystems then perform information and data processing, leading to both knowledge organization and representation. We assume by that model that top‐level concepts emerge from knowledge organization and representation. This paper points obvious connection of visual imagery and the internet; perceptual access of knowledge organization and information retrieval. There are some practical and characteristic solutions for the visualization of information without demand of completeness.Research limitations/implicationsLibrarians need to identify those semantic characteristics which stimulate a similar conceptual image both in the mind of the librarian and in the mind of the user.Originality/valueFor a fresh perspective, an understanding of perception is required as well.

Behavioural evidence for separating components within visuo-spatial working memory

Several different sources of evidence support the idea that visuo-spatial working memory can be segregated into separate cognitive subsystems. However, the nature of these systems remains unclear. Recently we reported data from neurological patients suggesting that information about visual appearance is retained in a different subsystem from information about spatial location. In this paper we report latency data from neurologically intact participants showing an experimental double dissociation between memory for appearance and memory for location. This was achieved by use of a selective dual task interference technique. This pattern provides evidence supporting the segregation of visuo-spatial memory between two systems, one of which supports memory for stimulus appearance and the other which supports memory for spatial location.

Designing a CBT service for an acute inpatient setting: A pilot evaluation study

AbstractA frequent complaint by service‐users of psychiatric inpatient units is the unavailability of talking therapy at precisely the time when they need to make sense of their situation. However, conventional models of cognitive–behavioural therapy (CBT) delivery, with set numbers of sessions and diagnostic specificity, are not well suited to the conditions of the acute ward, with variable and unpredictable lengths of stay and multiple and indistinct presentations. This pilot study describes a modification of CBT designed to deliver an effective, brief therapy in these conditions. The approach is grounded on the cognitive science‐based model, interacting cognitive subsystems, and draws on dialectical behaviour therapy and other recent, mindfulness‐based CBT approaches to provide a combination of simple formulation and skills‐based treatment. Evaluation in the inpatient setting also presents challenges, and these have been met by choosing measures that tap into self‐efficacy and confidence in the management of emotions rather than symptomatic change. The evaluation data on a small number of cases suggest the effectiveness of the approach and the need for wider testing of the model. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A test of the interacting cognitive subsystems model using a laboratory analogue of depressive interlock

AbstractThe interacting cognitive subsystems (ICS) model has been described as a useful framework within which to understand a wide variety of psychological phenomena. There is now a small literature of studies that have found support for many of the model's basic features. One feature that has not been studied is depressive interlock, described as uncontrollable, repetitious processing of negative themes. To further test some of the predictions derived from ICS, we compared a group of clinically depressed participants with a non‐depressed control group, using a specially designed cognitive task to examine the effects of emotional tone of stimuli on information processing. Results indicated that depression (but not euthymia) is characterized by perseverative responding for both positively and negatively emotionally toned self‐related material, but not for similar neutral material. This result is suggested as further empirical support for the ICS framework. Copyright © John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

An interacting cognitive subsystems approach to personality disorder

AbstractPersonality disorder is defined as an enduring pattern of problems with cognition, emotional regulation and behaviour. Personality disorder is a common problem, but also a serious challenge for mental health services. A theoretical psychological model of personality disorder that is based on a scientific understanding of the architecture of cognition would provide a logical basis for treatment and further study. This paper proposes that the interacting cognitive subsystems model of a distributed architecture for human cognition can provide a theoretical account of personality disorder. Two inherent aspects of the ICS model, ‘non‐discriminative processing’ and ‘interlock’, are discussed. Non‐discriminative processing occurs when novel material is recognized as discrepant with existing expectations, but does not lead to a modification of existing representational schemata. Interlock refers to a situation where the unchanged output of subsystem processing is used as the input for another subsystem in a feedback loop. It is hypothesized that these two processes, together with abnormal content of the implicational representational schema, can explain the rigidity and maladaptive nature of cognitive schemata that are themselves believed to lead to the clinical features of personality disorder. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Marriage between Ego and Id: Cognitive Integration and its Relation to Mystical Experience

The author suggests a new model for interpretation of mystical experience, based on a fruitful combination of cognitive psychology and depth psychology. Offering a rather wide definition of mystical experience, the author then turns to two basic assumptions—a general systems approach and an organismic-holistic view of development. Hans Loewald's analysis of primary process cognition is combined with a multi-dimensional model of cognitive activity called “Interacting Cognitive Subsystems” (ICS), presented by John D. Teasdale and Philip J. Barnard. These two complementary theoretical perspectives are applied to the analysis of both historical and contemporary examples of mystical experience, understood as a result of a dialectical interplay between these different coding systems, or the marriage between Ego and Id.

Psychological approaches to bipolar disorders: A theoretical critique

An outline is presented of five main psychological models of the bipolar disorders. These approaches include the Behavioural Activation/Inhibition Systems model, the Cognitive Therapy model, the Interpersonal and Social Rhythm Therapy model, the Interacting Cognitive Subsystems model, and the SPAARS model. Strengths and weaknesses are highlighted for each approach. It is concluded that although there is no model that can adequately account for even the key features of the bipolar disorders (such as periodicity, shifts in the valence of the self-concept, mixed affective states, and patterns of recovery and relapse), nevertheless, more recently developed multi-level approaches to emotion offer more sophisticated possibilities for modeling these complex disorders.

Selectively attending to natural scenes after alcohol consumption: An ERP analysis

Alcohol effects on cognitive, emotional and behavioral processes have been linked to an impairment of attention. Because attention operates at the level of specific cognitive subsystems, recent studies demonstrated alcohol effects in specific post-perceptual processes such as response selection and working memory. Measuring event-related potentials, the present study focused on perceptual processes by utilizing a categorization task where participants had to decide whether briefly presented images contained an animal or not. Findings demonstrate an early differential ERP activity for target compared to non-target images, which was reduced after alcohol intoxication. Thus, alcohol intoxication had deleterious effects at the perceptual level of processing considered to reflect the interaction of top-down (category-related) and bottom-up (stimulus-driven) processes. In addition, post-perceptual processes were also impaired by alcohol intoxication.

Neuropsychological evidence for separating components of visuo–spatial working memory

There is increasing evidence to support the idea that visuo-spatial working memory can be segregated into separate cognitive subsystems. However, the nature of these systems remains unclear. In this paper we report data from two brain injured patients suggesting that information about visual appearance is retained in a different subsystem from information about spatial location, and that this differential processing can be observed when the style of presentation (sequential or simultaneous) is controlled.