Cognitive Research Research Articles

First noncontact millimeter-wave radar measurement of heart rate in great apes: Validation in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).

Heart rate is a crucial vital sign and a valuable indicator for assessing the physical and psychological condition of a target animal. Heart rate contributes to (1) fundamental information for cognitive research, (2) an indicator of psychological and physical stress, and (3) improving the animal welfare of captive animals, especially in nonhuman primate studies. Heart rate has been measured using a contact-type device; however, the device burdens the target animals and that there are risks associated with anesthesia during installation. This study explores the application of heartbeat measurement techniques using millimeter-wave radar, primarily developed for humans, as a remote and noninvasive method for measuring the heart rate of nonhuman primates. Through a measurement test conducted on two chimpanzees, we observed a remarkable correspondence between the peak frequency spectrum of heart rate estimated using millimeter-wave radar and the mean value obtained from electrocardiograph data, thereby validating the accuracy of the method. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first demonstration of the precise measurement of great apes' heart rate using millimeter-wave radar technology. Compared to heart rate measurement using video analysis, the method using millimeter-wave radar has the advantage that it is less susceptible to weather and lighting conditions and that measurement techniques for multiple individuals have been developed for human subjects, while its disadvantage is that validation of measurement from long distances has not been completed. Another disadvantage common to both methods is that measurement becomes difficult when the movement of the target individual is large. The possibility of noncontact measurement of heart rate in wild and captive primates will undoubtedly open up a new research area while taking animal welfare into consideration.

A study on the image of Guilin’s urban central space from multidimensional views

In the context of high-quality urban development, strengthening the distinct characteristics of the city itself has become a hot topic. This study focuses on the present Guilin’s urban central space as its research object, aiming to explore the characteristics of Guilin city image through three dimensions: traditional method, spatial syntax, and big data analysis. By exploring the differences presented across these dimensions, the study seeks to analyze the influence of human activities on the spatial form of the city. The investigation reveals that the current development of Guilin’s urban central space manifests a diverse cognitive image characterized by large dispersion, small aggregation, and weak systematicity. The influence of natural landscape on the development of city images in Guilin’s urban central space lies in its ability to facilitate the outlanders’ macroscopic cognition of Guilin’s unique landscape characteristics. However, it also hinders the development of the road network in the urban area, resulting in reduced spatial accessibility and cognitive intensity. In short, Guilin’s urban central space requires systematic integration of the development of multiple images in its future development. This approach entails strengthening the accessibility of public transportation and effectively enhancing the coordination of its unique landscape and natural elements with the development of other urban spaces. Moreover, this study attempts to provide insights into the future planning of cities from the perspective of integrated image development. In addition, it represents a pioneering effort to acquire data and analyze methodologies for cognitive research on city morphology and city image.

The semiotic phenomenology of inverse alteroception

Abstract Alteroception is the virtual experience of another person’s bodily movement centered in the perspective of the other person. In face-to-face interactions, human beings tend to assume a special mode of alteroception by mutually but tacitly recognizing that ‘your right is on my left and your left is on my right’. Researchers of neonatal cognition and early childhood development describe this mode of alteroception as “reverse” or “inverted”. Inverse alteroception goes beyond mirror-image mimesis to chiastic (crisscrossing) mimesis in acts of intersubjective sense-making; but the cognitive and cultural affordances of this inverse reciprocal ability are largely untreated in the literature. I argue that this unique aspect of human phenomenology deserves closer attention since it enables a broader palette of diagrammatic contrasts that extend far beyond face-to-face interaction. In this paper, I apply insights from Peircean and Greimasian semiotics to argue that salient features of the human lifeworld originate from imaginative mappings of inverse alteroception onto other domains. From diagrams of gesture space and contemporary visual design to the structures of the Proscenium stage, from historic heraldry to Aristotle’s logical square of oppositions and beyond, many visual/spatial designs and their reciprocal interaction with human experience are linked to this ability – an ability that owes its origins, in turn, to the evolution of upright posture.

External representations in strategic decision‐making: Understanding strategy's reliance on visuals

AbstractResearch SummaryExternal representations, particularly visuals, are important in strategic decision‐making. However, their pervasiveness and impact are not well understood in the strategy literature. Based on cognitive science research, we identify four cognitive functions crucial to strategic decision‐making that benefit from using external representations. We also propose a conceptual model and propositions that explain how the quality of strategic decision‐making depends on the interactions among task environment, external representations, and managers. We show that external representations influence in predictable ways the boundedly rational process of searching for new strategies. Key determinants include the manager's representational capability and the usability and malleability of the external representation. We discuss implications for users, designers, and teachers of external representations in strategy, as well as suggest avenues for future research.Managerial SummaryThis research points to the pivotal role of external representations, especially visuals, in strategic decision‐making. Drawing from cognitive science, this study identifies four critical cognitive functions that benefit from these external representations—working memory, long‐term memory, pattern recognition, and knowledge transfer. Further, the study highlights that external representations significantly influence the process of strategic decision‐making in predictable ways. Finally, we show that not all external representations are alike in their ease of use and a managers' ability to operate on an external representation, referred to as representational capability, greatly affects the decision‐making quality. The implications extend to users, designers, and educators of external representations, urging attention to the design and use of external representations for improved decision outcomes.

Credit Assignment: Challenges and Opportunities in Developing Human-like Learning Agents

Temporal credit assignment is the process of distributing delayed outcomes to each action in a sequence, which is essential for learning to adapt and make decisions in dynamic environments. While computational methods in reinforcement learning, such as temporal difference (TD), have shown success in tackling this issue, it remains unclear whether these mechanisms accurately reflect how humans handle feedback delays. Furthermore, cognitive science research has not fully explored the credit assignment problem in humans and cognitive models. Our study uses a cognitive model based on Instance-Based Learning Theory (IBLT) to investigate various credit assignment mechanisms, including equal credit, exponential credit, and TD credit, using the IBL decision mechanism in a goal-seeking navigation task with feedback delays and varying levels of decision complexity. We compare the performance and process measures of the different models with human decision-making in two experiments. Our findings indicate that the human learning process cannot be fully explained by any of the mechanisms. We also observe that decision complexity affects human behavior but not model behavior. By examining the similarities and differences between human and model behavior, we summarize the challenges and opportunities for developing learning agents that emulate human decisions in dynamic environments.

Beyond Newton: Why assumptions of universality are critical to cognitive science, and how to finally move past them.

Cognitive science is a study of human universals. This assumption, which we will refer to as the Newtonian principle (NP), explicitly or implicitly pervades the theory, methods, and prose of most cognitive research. This is despite at least half a century of sustained critique by cross-cultural and anthropologically oriented researchers and glaring counterexamples such as the study of literacy. We argue that a key reason for this intransigence is that the NP solves the boundary problem of cognitive science. Since studying the idiosyncratic cognitive features of an individual is not a generalizable scientific enterprise, what scale of generalization in cognitive science is legitimate and interesting? The NP solution is a priori-only findings generalizing to all humans are legitimate. This approach is clearly flawed; however, critiques of the NP fail to provide any alternative solution. In fact, some anti-NP branches of research have abandoned generalizability altogether. Sailing between the scylla and charybdis of NP and hermeneutics, we propose an explicit, alternative solution to the boundary problem. Namely, building on many previous efforts, we combine cultural-evolutionary theory with a newly defined principle of articulation. This framework requires work on any given cognitive feature to explicitly hypothesize the universal or group-specific environments in which it emerges. Doing so shifts the question of legitimate generalizability from flawed, a priori assumptions to being a target of explicit claims and theorizing. Moreover, the articulation framework allows us to integrate existing findings across research traditions and motivates a range of future directions. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

False memories in forensic psychology: do cognition and brain activity tell the same story?

One of the most important problems in forensic psychology is the impossibility of reliably discriminating between true and false memories when the only prosecution evidence comes from the memory of a witness or a victim. Unfortunately, both children and adults can be persuaded that they have been victims of past criminal acts, usually of a sexual nature. In adults, suggestion often occurs in the context of suggestive therapies based on the belief that traumatic events are repressed, while children come to believe and report events that never occurred as a result of repeated suggestive questioning. Cognitive Researchers have designed false memory paradigms (i.e., misinformation effect, Deese-Roediger-McDermott paradigm, event implantation paradigm) to first form false memories and then determine whether it is possible to reliably differentiate between false and true memories. In the present study, we review the contribution of cognitive research to the formation of false memories and the neuropsychological approaches aimed to discriminate between true and false memories. Based on these results, we analyze the applicability of the cognitive and neuropsychological evidence to the forensic setting.

Systematic review of memory assessment in virtual reality: evaluating convergent and divergent validity with traditional neuropsychological measures.

The evaluation of memory is a crucial aspect of both cognitive research and clinical applications, as it offers valuable insights into an individual's cognitive wellbeing and performance. Conventional neuropsychological assessments represent the established method for assessing different aspects of memory. Recent technological advancements, specifically in the field of virtual reality (VR), have introduced novel methods for evaluating memory. This systematic review aims to examine the current state of memory assessment using VR technologies, assessing the degree of convergence and divergence between VR-based memory assessments and conventional neuropsychological tests. A systematic review of the literature was conducted searching PubMed, PsycINFO, Web of Science databases, leading to the incorporation of 24 studies. Studies were grouped according to the examined memory domain (episodic, prospective, spatial domain). Convergence and divergence validity were examined for each, and information on software and hardware features was collected. This review demonstrates a notable alignment between VR-based memory assessments and conventional neuropsychological tests. Moreover, VR tasks have shown to exhibit associations with executive functions and overall cognitive performance. The inclusion of various ecological contexts, such as residential environments, commercial establishments, and simulated scenarios, serves to augment the ecological validity of memory evaluations conducted in VR. The findings indicate that VR assessments demonstrate a functional perspective by effectively capturing the dynamic relationship between memory, executive functions, and overall cognitive performance. Nevertheless, it is imperative to acknowledge and tackle certain constraints that may hinder the widespread adoption and utilization of VR tasks. These limitations encompass factors such as restricted accessibility to VR tasks and the presence of heterogeneity in VR hardware and software. The dynamic and ever-changing nature of VR technology presents a range of potential avenues for future investigation and utilization in the domain of memory evaluation.

Artificial neural networks for model identification and parameter estimation in computational cognitive models.

Computational cognitive models have been used extensively to formalize cognitive processes. Model parameters offer a simple way to quantify individual differences in how humans process information. Similarly, model comparison allows researchers to identify which theories, embedded in different models, provide the best accounts of the data. Cognitive modeling uses statistical tools to quantitatively relate models to data that often rely on computing/estimating the likelihood of the data under the model. However, this likelihood is computationally intractable for a substantial number of models. These relevant models may embody reasonable theories of cognition, but are often under-explored due to the limited range of tools available to relate them to data. We contribute to filling this gap in a simple way using artificial neural networks (ANNs) to map data directly onto model identity and parameters, bypassing the likelihood estimation. We test our instantiation of an ANN as a cognitive model fitting tool on classes of cognitive models with strong inter-trial dependencies (such as reinforcement learning models), which offer unique challenges to most methods. We show that we can adequately perform both parameter estimation and model identification using our ANN approach, including for models that cannot be fit using traditional likelihood-based methods. We further discuss our work in the context of the ongoing research leveraging simulation-based approaches to parameter estimation and model identification, and how these approaches broaden the class of cognitive models researchers can quantitatively investigate.

NEUROPERSONALITY APPROACH TO THE ISSUE OF COGNITIVE SECURITY AS A NECESSARY CONDITION FOR WORK-RELATED SOCIALIZATION OF IT-SPECIALISTS

The post-classical paradigm of understanding the system of personality potentials due to virtualization and informatization of most spheres of natural life emphasizes the need to rethink the many positions of determining personal development and resourcefulness of specialists. The conceptual principles of cognitive security research of specialists in the field of IT technologies, whose professional activity is directly related to information culture, information, and cognitive security of others, need to be clarified. Methodology. An empirical study was conducted on two randomized groups of IT specialists. The groups are differentiated according to the criterion of professional experience. Accordingly, two groups were formed: EG1 (n 76) - IT specialists with experience of up to five years and group EG2 (n 83) - IT specialists with experience of more than five years (6-10 years). To generalize the structure of the relationship of categories that reveal the range of factors of cognitive-stylistic determination and neurodynamic conditionality of cognitive security of IT specialists, an expert evaluation was conducted. Research technology involved the assessment of IT experts (22 specialists with 15-22 years of experience) the importance of parameters that identified three main strategies for cognitive security of IT specialists Results. Sixteen neuropersonality types of solving professional problems and ensuring cognitive security of IT specialists differentiated by professional experience were identified. Three strategies of cognitive security of IT specialists: "Life-sustainability-strategicity", "Metacognitive knowledge - control over action" and "Positive refocusing - Metacognitive activity" are specified.

Attentional bias to uncertainty-based information: a conceptual replication of Fergus et al. (2013)

Attentional biases to negative information are often observed in emotional disorders such as anxiety and depression. Recently, Fergus et al. (Cognitive Therapy and Research 37:735-741, 2013) demonstrated that participants scoring high in Intolerance of Uncertainty (IU), a transdiagnostic risk factor for emotional disorders, were faster at identifying targets with uncertainty-based information (e.g., word stimuli such as ‘maybe’), relative to neutral information (e.g. word stimuli related to household items). Moreover, this effect was specific to IU over other anxious traits such as worry. This report aimed to conceptually replicate the results of Fergus et al. (Cognitive Therapy and Research 37:735-741, 2013). The current experiment was conducted with a student sample (n = 126). As in the original study, a visual search task with uncertainty-based and neutral information (e.g., word stimuli) was used. Reaction times were collected. IU and trait anxiety was measured via self-report. We partially replicated the results of Fergus et al. (Cognitive Therapy and Research 37:735-741, 2013). We found that higher IU was significantly associated with faster identification of uncertainty-based information, relative to neutral information. However, we also observed a similar pattern of results for trait anxiety. Additionally, we observed no specificity of IU or trait anxiety in predicting faster identification of uncertainty-based information, relative to neutral information. Despite the lack of specificity of IU or trait anxiety in predicting attentional bias to uncertainty-based information, these findings highlight that negative emotionality may be generally associated with attentional biases to uncertainty-based information in the absence of direct threat.

The typical and atypical developing mind: a common model.

We present a theory of atypical development based on a developmental theory of the typical mind integrating developmental, cognitive, and psychometric theory and research. The paper comprises three parts. First, it outlines the theory of typical development. The theory postulates central cognitive mechanisms, such as relational integration, executive and inferential processes, and domain-specific processes underlying different environmental relations, such as visuospatial or quantitative relations. Cognitive development advances in cycles satisfying developmental priorities in mastering these systems, such as executive control from 2-6 years, inferential control from 7-11 years, and truth control from 12-18 years. Second, we discuss atypical development, showing how each neurodevelopmental disorder emerges from deficiencies in one or more of the processes comprising the architecture of the mind. Deficiencies in relational integration mechanisms, together with deficiencies in social understanding, yield autism spectrum disorder. Deficiencies in executive processes yield attention-deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Deficiencies in symbolic representation yield specialized learning difficulties, such as dyslexia and dyscalculia. Finally, we discuss clinical and educational implications, suggesting the importance of early diagnosis of malfunctioning in each of these dimensions and specific programs for their remediation.

Reliability and validity of a novel attention assessment scale (broken ring enVision search test) in the Chinese population.

The correct assessment of attentional function is the key to cognitive research. A new attention assessment scale, the Broken Ring enVision Search Test (BReViS), has not been validated in China. The purpose of this study was to assess the reliability and validity of the BReViS in the Chinese population. From July to October 2023, 100 healthy residents of Changzhou were selected and subjected to the BReViS, Digital Cancelation Test (D-CAT), Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT), and Digit Span Test (DST). Thirty individuals were randomly chosen to undergo the BReViS twice for test-retest reliability assessment. Correlation analysis was conducted between age, education level, gender, and various BReViS sub-tests including Selective Attention (SA), Orientation of Attention (OA), Focal Attention (FA), and Total Errors (Err). Intergroup comparisons and multiple linear regression analyses were performed. Additionally, correlation analyses between the BReViS sub-tests and with other attention tests were also analyzed. The correlation coefficients of the BReViS sub-tests (except for FA) between the two tests were greater than 0.600 (p < 0.001), indicating good test-retest reliability. The Cronbach's alpha coefficient was 0.874, suggesting high internal consistency reliability. SA showed a significant negative correlation with the net score of D-CAT (r = -0.405, p < 0.001), and a significant positive correlation with the error rate of D-CAT (r = 0.401, p < 0.001), demonstrating good criterion-related validity. The correlation analysis among the results of each sub-test showed that the correlation coefficient between SA and Err was 0.532 (p < 0.001), and between OA and Err was-0.229 (p < 0.05), whereas there was no significant correlation between SA, OA, and FA, which indicated that the scale had good informational content validity and structural validity. Both SA and Err were significantly correlated with age and years of education, while gender was significantly correlated with OA and Err. Multiple linear regression suggested that Err was mainly affected by age and gender. There were significant differences in the above indexes among different age, education level and gender groups. Correlation analysis with other attention tests revealed that SA negatively correlated with DST forward and backward scores and SDMT scores. Err positively correlated with D-CAT net scores and negatively with D-CAT error rate, DST forward and backward scores, and SDMT scores. OA and FA showed no significant correlation with other attention tests. The BReViS test, demonstrating good reliability and validity, assessing not only selective attention but also gauging capacities in immediate memory, information processing speed, visual scanning, and hand-eye coordination. The results are susceptible to demographic variables such as age, gender, and education level.

The epistemology-oriented conceptual model of cognitive-semantic universals in related languages

The analytical study of the processes of thinking and awareness of reality is positioned as an actualized psychological direction in linguistics, which arose as a result of the logical transformation of traditional logicism and formalism in the course of the development of speech activity. The purpose of the article is to study the epistemologically oriented conceptual model of cognitive-semantic universals in related languages. In the course of the study, it was found that the previous historical stage was characterized by ignoring the influence of psychophysiological aspects. It has been determined that in the process of transformation the phenomenon of language is interpreted as a reflection of the psychological concept and spiritual activity. It is proved that the cognitive paradigm made it possible to explain the thinking processes that occur during the production of speech with the advent of the cognitive paradigm in linguistics. It is suggested that from a universal point of view, any conceptual area can be studied with the help of elementary concepts. The study has shown that from the standpoint of cognitive grammar, grammatical categories have corresponding prototypical structures. The sphere of conceptual functionality of modern cognitive semantics is distinguished. The cognitive-semantic universality of the basic main category is stated. It is proved that the epistemologically oriented conceptual model of cognitive-semantic universals in related languages is represented by such processes in the lexical composition of a word as generalization (transition from the concrete to the abstract general), narrowing (dynamics from the abstract to the specialized), degradation (depreciation) and polarization (opposition). Promising directions for further scientific research on the subject of the study are actualized, namely, conducting cognitive research that accurately explains the universal conceptual processes occurring in semantics.

Cognitive and neural mechanisms of learning and interventions for improvement across the adult lifespan: A systematic review protocol.

There continues to be growing interest in the Science of Learning including identifying applications for findings from this work outside the laboratory to support learning. Presently, there exists a gap in our understanding of learning during healthy adulthood as well as effective ways in which that learning can be improved. Developing a more comprehensive understanding of learning during adulthood, and effective ways of improving that learning, are crucial goals given the impact of a rapidly aging global population. The main objective of the proposed systematic review is to identify and synthesize all recent cognitive and brain research investigating learning across the adult lifespan. Searches will be performed across Scopus, Web of Science, and ProQuest databases. Both published and unpublished literature will be screened for inclusion. Included articles will be limited to research in healthy adult samples reporting measures of learning-related cognition, brain structure or function and their relationship with age, or the impact of interventions to improve learning. All steps of the review will be performed by three trained reviewers. Tabular, narrative, and quantitative syntheses will be provided based on the characteristics of included studies. Findings from the proposed review will contribute to our understanding of learning in adulthood. Additionally, this review will identify research gaps in need of further investigation and relevant findings for translation, informing the scope of future funding priorities in the Science of Learning.

The Role of Knowledge in Creative Thinking

ABSTRACT In this invited paper, I briefly review my past, current, and future lines of research. The associative theory of creativity argues that higher creative individuals have a richer semantic memory structure that facilitates broader associative search processes, that leads to the combination of remote concepts into novel and appropriate ideas. Based on this theory, in my research I investigate the role of knowledge – or semantic memory – in high-level cognition, focusing on creativity, associative thinking, and memory search, in typical and clinical populations. To do so, I apply computational tools from network science, natural language processing, and machine learning, coupled with empirical cognitive and neural research. Such computational tools are enabling the representation and operationalization of the structure of semantic memory and the processes that operate over it. This is critical as it allows us to start quantifying issues that for a very long time were studied very subjectively in creativity research – remoteness of ideas, associative thinking, flexible/richer semantic memory structure, etc. Such work is offering unique, quantitative, ways to directly study classic theories of creativity, propelling forward our understanding of its complexity.

Understanding what factors affect firefighter use of site-specific risk information

Fire services have a responsibility to record information regarding known hazards for sites posing unique and substantial risks. Such information is important, both for informing service planning, and for supporting the development of situational awareness and decision-making during emergency response. However, public inquiries and service inspections have raised concerns regarding the effectiveness of systems in place for recording, monitoring, and using site-specific risk information (SSRI). In contrast, a lack of research focus has been directed toward the use of SSRI, limiting the evidence base available for understanding the causes of these difficulties and how they may be addressed. The following study seeks to contribute to developing knowledge by examines what factors affect the use of SSRI across organisational levels and why. Interviews were conducted with 23 firefighters from operational and tactical roles in one region of the UK. Thematic analysis highlighted six key themes: (i) Differences in the use of SSRI across organisational levels, (ii) System accessibility, (iii) Content, (iv) Structure, (v) Quality, and (vi) Training. Findings indicate that SSRI use is affected by the relevance, structure, and quality of information, which are influenced by workload, training, guidance, and system accessibility. During emergency response, information requirements, time and cognitive capacity differ across organisational levels, influencing the extent to which barriers affect ability to use SSRI. The implications of findings are discussed in relation to informing future areas of applied cognition research, and fire sector decisions regarding the gathering and storage of SSRI.

Influence of cognitive styles on students� research activities

Relevance. Understanding how cognitive styles affect students' research activities is essential for optimizing educational strategies and improving academic performance. Purpose. This study assesses the impact of cognitive styles on students� research activities by identifying how behavioural patterns influenced by cognitive styles affect the quality and quantity of scientific papers produced. Methodology. The study employed a survey of respondents to gather versatile data on students� cognitive styles and research activities. Methods included system analysis, logical analysis, comparison, synthesis, deduction, and classification. Results. The findings highlight significant variations in research productivity based on cognitive styles. Students with intuitive and reflective cognitive styles demonstrated higher levels of research output, characterized by innovative problem-solving and thorough analysis. In contrast, students with impulsive or strongly visual cognitive styles faced challenges in structuring and synthesizing research findings effectively. Conclusions. This research confirms that different cognitive styles significantly influence students� academic performance and research productivity. Educational strategies should be tailored to accommodate diverse cognitive preferences to optimize learning outcomes. Keywords: educational strategies; student performance; research productivity; educational programs adaptation; behavioural patterns

The roles of intrinsic motivation and capability-related factors in cognitive effort-based decision-making.

Individual differences in cognitive effort-based decision-making can be used to reveal human motivations to invest effort into a given task. Preferences among options that differ by dimensions related to demand levels (i.e., the interaction of task characteristics and performance measures) are also heavily influenced by how likely a person can succeed at a given option. However, most existing cognitive effort-based research has focused primarily on demand-related factors, leading to confounding inferences about the motivation behind these choices. This study used an adaptive algorithm to adjust relative demand levels for three cognitive tasks to investigate general and individual differences in demand preferences. The results highlight an overall pattern of individual differences in intrinsic motivation to perform challenging tasks, supporting research that found cognitive effort aversive to some but attractive to others. These results suggest that relative demand levels and intrinsic task factors drive the motivation to select an action.

Modeling distracted driving behavior considering cognitive processes

The modeling of distracted driving behavior has been studied for many years, however, there remain many distraction phenomena that can not be fully modeled. This study proposes a new method that establishes the model using the queuing network model human processor (QN-MHP) framework. Unlike previous models that only consider distracted-driving-related human factors from a mathematical perspective, the proposed method reflects the information processing in the human brain, and simulates the distracted driver’s cognitive processes based on a model structure supported by physiological and cognitive research evidence. Firstly, a cumulative activation effect model for external stimuli is adopted to mimic the phenomenon that a driver responds only to stimuli above a certain threshold. Then, dual-task queuing and switching mechanisms are modeled to reflect the cognitive resource allocation under distraction. Finally, the driver's action is modeled by the Intelligent Driver Model (IDM). The model is developed for visual distraction auditory distraction separately. 773 distracted car-following events from the Shanghai Naturalistic Driving Study data were used to calibrate and verify the model. Results show that the model parameters are more uniform and reasonable. Meanwhile, the model accuracy has improved by 57% and 66% compared to the two baseline models respectively. Moreover, the model demonstrates its ability to generate critical pre-crash scenarios and estimate the crash rate of distracted driving. The proposed model is expected to contribute to safety research regarding new vehicle technologies and traffic safety analysis.