Cognitive Operation Research Articles

The burden of brooding on neural error processing: The role of repetitive negative thinking in major depressive disorder with and without comorbid anxiety disorders

BackgroundRepetitive negative thinking (RNT), particularly its brooding aspect, is a prominent feature in Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) with and without comorbid anxiety. Error processing, an adaptive cognitive operation, seems to be impaired in individuals with exaggerated RNT. This study measured a post-error neural response, error-related negativity (ERN), during an inhibitory task to examine the mechanism underlying the relationship between RNT and faulty error processing. MethodsWe examined current MDD patients with (n = 61) and without comorbid anxiety disorders (COM; n = 38), propensity-matched into High- or Low-RNT groups according to Ruminative Response Scale Brooding subscale scores. Using 32-channel electroencephalography (EEG) during a stop-signal task, we measured baseline-corrected ERN amplitude at FCz 0–100 ms after an incorrect response. A between-subjects ANOVA was conducted with group (High RNT, Low RNT) and comorbidity (MDD, COM) as factors. ResultsA significant group-by-comorbidity interaction (η2 = 0.07) was found, with MDD participants exhibiting high RNT revealing smaller (more positive) ERN amplitudes compared to their COM counterparts with high RNT (d = 0.77) and MDD participants with low RNT (d = 0.92). ConclusionsNon-anxious individuals with MDD and high RNT showed blunted post-error neural responses, potentially indicating a diminished adaptive neural mechanism for recognizing and correcting errors. However, the presence of comorbid anxiety disorders in individuals with high RNT appears to counteract this reduction, potentially through an enhanced neural response to errors, thereby maintaining a higher level of error-processing activity. Further understanding of these relationships is essential for developing targeted interventions for MDD, with particular focus on the detrimental impact of brooding RNT.

Реконтекстуалізація в перекладі студентського сленгу

Student slang as a secondary communication system is used by students exclusively in the context of informal conversation, since slang units cannot be used appropriately without knowing specific university terminology. The difficulty of translating such profanity is caused by the need for recontextualization – the translator's reconstruction of the source and target text contexts. The study of student slang words, in particular the techniques of translating them from English into Ukrainian, is relevant due to the dynamic nature of student slang, as well as the expansion of the boundaries of contemporary academic mobility of students. The purpose of the article is to determine the peculiarities of using the recontextualization strategy in the main techniques of translating student slang from English into Ukrainian. The integrated study of recontextualization in student slang translation involved the application of the following methods: the method of continuous sampling (for assembling slang units from student web-blogs), the method of descriptive observation (for defining possible techniques of translating student slang), methods of analysis and synthesis (for singling out lexical and stylistic peculiarities of student slang translation and formulation of conclusions). Results. Within the framework of sociocognitive approach, context is considered to be a special mental construct generated by participants in their episodic memory in the course of communicative interaction. The relevant constituents of the unique, subjective and dynamic context model include the sender and receiver of the message, their relationship, personal (situational) and sociocultural knowledge, evaluations and emotions, place and time of communication. A translator as a mediator of communicative interaction between the sender and the receiver of the message, also constructs a context model. Effective translation activity is possible only if the peculiarities of the context models of both the sender and the receiver of the message are taken into account. That is why the translator's context model is formed by incorporating the context models of both communicative partners into an integrated context model. Recontextualization as a linguistic and cognitive operation is aimed at reconstructing a communicative situation in the conceptual coordinates of communicative partners. Recontextualization in translation is a comprehensive translation strategy that affects all structural and communicative levels of the text and is used to adapt the translated text to the conditions acceptable in the target environment and the pragmatics of bilingual interaction. The strategy of recontextualization in student slang translation includes several stages: reconstructing the integrated context model that will resonate with the usual, everyday conditions of student life; domesticating the source text through analogy and specification; using appropriate translation techniques and transformations to reproduce the meaning of student slang in the target language. A comprehensive analysis of the illustrative material proved that the strategy of recontextualization involves such most frequent techniques of translating student slang as the search for appropriate equivalents in the target language, descriptive translation, explication and calquing. The highlighting stylistic features of translating student slang include metaphor, metonymy and antonomasia. The stylistic load of student slang often causes translation difficulties, since the strategy of recontextualization requires the involvement of a wide range of not only situational background, but also encyclopaedic knowledge. Originality. The article presents the attempt of making a deep insight into the application of the recontextualization strategy in translating student slang from English into Ukrainian. Conclusion. The results of the study prove that student slang is a multifaceted and emotionally coloured linguistic phenomenon that serves not only as a means of communication but also as a kind of sypher encoded in a mosaic of words and phrases. The strategy of recontextualization as a multi-stage linguistic and cognitive operation is focused on the reconstruction of the communicative situation by the translator in order to adapt the target text and adequately translate slang units. It is proved that the main techniques of translating student slang from English into Ukrainian are the search for appropriate equivalents in the target language, descriptive translation, explication and calquing. Metaphor, metonymy and antonomasia are the most effective and frequent stylistic means aimed at fulfilling the pragmatic function of slang units. We consider the study of possible ways of translating student abbreviations and phraseological units from English into Ukrainian to be much promising.

The limit of human intelligence

In 1998, Fields medallist Stephen Smale [Smale (1998) [1]] proposed his famous eighteen problems to the mathematicians of this century. The statement of his eighteenth problem is simple but very important. The statement of his problem is, “What are the limits of intelligence, both artificial and human?”. To answer the limit of human intelligence, in this paper, we introduce cognitive-consequence space and cognitive-consequence topology, and mainly prove that deductive and non-deductive parts of a human mind will never be empty. It proves a human being will continue to think and solve problems using both deductive and non-deductive inferences as long as they are alive. Hence, we conclude that human intelligence is limitless. We also introduce cognitive closure, cognitive similarity distance, cognitive limit point, cognitive-continuous function, consequence ideal, consequence filter, Gödel's incompleteness black hole, and study related properties. We also provide suitable justifications to show that cognitive consequence topological space is not similar to that of any existing topological space because it connects cognitive space and consequence operator in one frame to find the limit of human intelligence. Moreover, we also provide justifications to state that artificial intelligence has limitations. Thus, we conclude that human intelligence will always remain superior to artificial intelligence.

Frequency-Tunable SIW Band-Reject Filter with Increased Fundamental Mode Bandwidth for Spectrum Underlay Cognitive Radio

This paper presents the design of a frequency-tunable substrate-integrated waveguide (SIW) band-reject filter, specifically for spectrum underlay cognitive radio operation. The proposed filter has a simple tuning circuit but provides a wide frequency tuning range from 2.9 to 4.4 GHz (41%). The second resonant mode has been suppressed using a simple quadrature coupling; hence, the fundamental mode bandwidth of the filter has been increased from 2.08 GHz to 3.36 GHz. Due to its wide tuning range, simple tuning circuit, and increased fundamental mode bandwidth, the proposed filter is greatly important in underlay cognitive radio construction. The second-order filter has also been developed, and its performance is analyzed with both simulation and measurement. It gives a tunable bandwidth of 41%, an insertion loss of more than 10 dB, and a fundamental mode bandwidth of 3.36 GHz. The filter performance is also analyzed after connecting it to the standard horn antenna. Finally, from the total efficiency plots, it has been concluded that the proposed filter achieves all the above advantages with a low-lossy nature.

Mira de Amescua’s Voces del Cielo Speak, Vélez de Guevara’s Sing Dramatic Ballads—Critical Notes

Abstract: One hundred years have passed since C. E. Anibal called attention to Mira de Amescua’s use of “heaven’s voices” as a device to enrich dramatic situations with multiple levels of ironic meaning by means of divination, or cledonomancy. These critical notes propose to show how Luis Vélez de Guevara used “heaven’s voices” in a different way, not as a cognitive operation, but rather, as an affective one, with songs that expressed what was visually manifest onstage. Like a movie soundtrack, Vélez’s voices from heaven enhanced the audience’s awareness of the spectacle that it was viewing, heightening the theatrical impact of the moment and accentuating its lyrical qualities.

A multi-demand operating system underlying diverse cognitive tasks

The existence of a multiple-demand cortical system with an adaptive, domain-general, role in cognition has been proposed, but the underlying dynamic mechanisms and their links to cognitive control abilities are poorly understood. Here we use a probabilistic generative Bayesian model of brain circuit dynamics to determine dynamic brain states across multiple cognitive domains, independent datasets, and participant groups, including task fMRI data from Human Connectome Project, Dual Mechanisms of Cognitive Control study and a neurodevelopment study. We discover a shared brain state across seven distinct cognitive tasks and found that the dynamics of this shared brain state predicted cognitive control abilities in each task. Our findings reveal the flexible engagement of dynamic brain processes across multiple cognitive domains and participant groups, and uncover the generative mechanisms underlying the functioning of a domain-general cognitive operating system. Our computational framework opens promising avenues for probing neurocognitive function and dysfunction.

Modern metaphor research in Russia: Trends, schools and results

This article focuses on various trends and linguistic approaches to metaphor studies in Russia (2019-2023). The latter deal with different types of metaphors, process of metaphor formation and the use of metaphors in discourse. The basic methods of investigation include comparative, inductive, generalization and descriptive approaches. The article summarises new results in modern studies of metaphor on data from Slavic, Romance and Germanic languages. In the paper, we show the role of metaphor both as a trope and a cognitive operation in monolingual and comparative studies. Alongside these traditional areas, we discuss the results of metaphor studies in multimodal texts and corpora. Multimodal texts are frequently constructed on the intersection of mental, semiotic and semantic fields. Corpora, which have proved to be a convenient source of recent and reliable data, present another modern sphere of investigation of metaphoric potential in Russian studies. We discuss such important areas of metaphor studies as the interdisciplinary approach, pluralism of methods, critical attitudes to universalism, emphasis on cultural features of communication and discourse, and the blending of rhetorical and cognitive methods.

Object-aware interactive perception for tabletop scene exploration

Recent advancements in sensors and deep learning techniques have improved reliability of robotic perceptual systems, but current systems are not robust enough for real-world challenges such as occlusions and sensing uncertainties in cluttered scenes. To overcome these issues, active or interactive perception actions are often necessary, such as sensor repositioning or object manipulation to reveal more information about the scene. Existing perception systems lack a comprehensive approach that incorporates both active and interactive action spaces, thereby limiting the robot’s perception capabilities. Moreover, these systems focus on exploring a single object or scene, without utilizing object information to guide the exploration of multiple objects. In this work, we propose an object-aware hybrid perception system that selects the next best action by considering both active and interactive action spaces and enhances the selection process with an object-aware approach to guide the cognitive robot operating in tabletop scenarios. Novel volumetric utility metrics are used to evaluate actions that include positioning sensors from a heterogeneous set or manipulating objects to gain a better perspective of the scene. The proposed system maintains the volumetric information of the scene that includes semantic information about objects, enabling it to exploit object information, associate occlusion with corresponding objects, and make informed decisions about object manipulation. We evaluate the performance of our system both in simulated and real-world experiments using a Baxter robotic platform equipped with two arms, RGB and depth cameras. Our experimental results show that the proposed system outperforms the compared state-of-the-art methods in the given scenarios, achieving an 11.2% performance increase.

On the ability of standard and brain-constrained deep neural networks to support cognitive superposition: a position paper

AbstractThe ability to coactivate (or “superpose”) multiple conceptual representations is a fundamental function that we constantly rely upon; this is crucial in complex cognitive tasks requiring multi-item working memory, such as mental arithmetic, abstract reasoning, and language comprehension. As such, an artificial system aspiring to implement any of these aspects of general intelligence should be able to support this operation. I argue here that standard, feed-forward deep neural networks (DNNs) are unable to implement this function, whereas an alternative, fully brain-constrained class of neural architectures spontaneously exhibits it. On the basis of novel simulations, this proof-of-concept article shows that deep, brain-like networks trained with biologically realistic Hebbian learning mechanisms display the spontaneous emergence of internal circuits (cell assemblies) having features that make them natural candidates for supporting superposition. Building on previous computational modelling results, I also argue that, and offer an explanation as to why, in contrast, modern DNNs trained with gradient descent are generally unable to co-activate their internal representations. While deep brain-constrained neural architectures spontaneously develop the ability to support superposition as a result of (1) neurophysiologically accurate learning and (2) cortically realistic between-area connections, backpropagation-trained DNNs appear to be unsuited to implement this basic cognitive operation, arguably necessary for abstract thinking and general intelligence. The implications of this observation are briefly discussed in the larger context of existing and future artificial intelligence systems and neuro-realistic computational models.

The birth of the deep state

A number of political scientists believe that the ‘deep state’ originated simultaneously with the state itself. But in fact, the authors of the article prove that the first effective ‘deep state’ in modern history appeared in England during the time of Henry VIII. Then, having nationalized the church, the king added to his powers the right to create and interpret norms. In response, reacting to the imbalance of the political system created by the king, the English aristocracy set out to control the monarch. The newly created network of influence was based on corruption: belonging to it guaranteed, to an official in the king’s service, additional benefits and career perspectives. The mean of internal control of the network was ‘ritual compromising evidence’, when other members witnessed the violating of generally accepted norms and rules. This guaranteed that in case of betrayal the reputation and future of any potential renegade would be destroyed. However, this triggered the processes of ‘normalization of violations,’ which culminated in the Cromwellian revolution and the Westminster Confession, which not only nullified out all compromising evidence, but also abolished the concept of sin in general. After recovering from the upheaval, England managed to summarize and theorize its experience. In the following century, it started to extrapolate it to France, which was its main geopolitical rival, mastering the techniques of cognitive programming. The same processes, that had spontaneously developed in England a century earlier, were launched in France, but in a controlled and guided form. England managed to create its own ‘deep state’ in France, which, in fact, inspired and supported the French Enlightenment by introducing into the public discourse concepts, which were in fact, cognitive operators: their implementation led to the natural conclusion of the backwardness of France compared to England. At the same time, the ‘deep state’ became a stable construct: thus, classical institutionalism assumes it as an integral part of the secular political system. In particular, this was realized, and promoted as a norm, by J.-J. Rousseau. The authors draw a number of conclusions on the construction of the deep state. It is always a network of influence, an alternative to power, which actively uses corruption as an instrument of stimulation and employs compromising evidence as an instrument of control.

The potential of creative uses of metonymy for climate protest

This paper develops the notion of metonymy scenarios by exploring the social and cognitive dimensions of various creative uses of metonymy in a collection of digital banners created for the Global Climate Strike movement. The paper argues that the banners exploit existing metonymic relationships to activate dominant anthropocentric discourses in society, and to subvert them via processes of recontextualisation and reappropriation, in order to challenge system conventions and normative attitudes regarding climate change. The literature to date has not adequately considered metonymy as a dynamic and scenario-activating cognitive operation, nor has it thoroughly investigated the relationship between metonymy and irony. However, the data analysed here show that several creative uses of metonymy, including twice-true metonymy, metonymy in combination with metaphor, and the juxtaposition of different metonymies are markers of what this paper posits as metonymic mininarratives or scenarios.

Unmasking Deception: Linguistic Cues Patterns Identification in Promotional Materials of Illegal Investment Scams

Misleading phraseology about illegal investment scams in promotional materials hinders financial sector regulation and investor protection. Understanding these tendencies and creating effective investor awareness measures are crucial. Using official-looking documents and websites that convey elitism and professionalism, illegal investment schemes make their huge profits seem more real. This study sought to understand how deceptive platforms lure potential investors. This was done by revealing deception strategies. Atlas.ti software was used to identify patterns of linguistic cues of deception presented in the promotional materials of illegal investment scams in this qualitative analysis. Eight themes emerged that illuminated intricate strategies used to create the illusion of authenticity and appeal in promotional materials. Beguiling Realism, Affective Ambivalence Techniques, Story Reconstructability, Unverified Spatial and Temporal Information, Dubious Clarity, Cognitive Operation, and Perceptual Information emerged from the analysis. This study impacted the government, public education, and economy to reveal the strategies utilised and prevent illegal investment schemes. The results show that the promotional materials create a false sense of credibility and legitimacy, the illusion that the scheme is profitable and credible, the illusion of personal connections and trust, and the impression of scarcity, which increases their exclusivity and demand to attract investors.

Language Acquisition in Diverse Linguistic, Social, and Cognitive Contexts: A Paper Review and Synthesis of Multifaceted Theories

The paper titled "Language Acquisition in Diverse Linguistic, Social and Cognitive Circumstances," authored by Maria Garraffa, Maria Teresa Guasti, Theodoros Marinis, and Gary Morgan, published on October 24, 2018, the authors explore the process of language acquisition within various linguistic, social, and cognitive contexts. The work introduces a broader discussion on language acquisition research, shedding light on how individuals learn and use language and emphasizing its interaction with cognitive trade-offs, operant conditioning, and universal grammar theory. The paper review illuminates the interplay between environmental, cognitive, and linguistic factors in shaping language development in children across diverse linguistic settings.

Multi-featured Emotional Expressions in English and American Literature - Based on the Application of Thinking Operations Modeling

Abstract Emotional analysis of English and American literary works constitutes a significant facet of literary scholarship. This study employs a cognitive operation model for analyzing emotional expressions in English and American literature, constructing a multi-featured method for emotion recognition and analysis, which serves as the principal analytical tool of the cognitive operation model. The research involves collecting and processing textual data from English and American literary works, followed by the application of the Senti-BERT model for vectorized representation. Subsequently, a bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) network is used to extract emotional vectors. Furthermore, a softmax function equipped with a multi-attention mechanism facilitates the classification and recognition of emotions. The efficacy of this model was evaluated using a pertinent dataset, with four literary works selected for empirical analysis. Results indicate that the predominant emotional tone across these works is negative. Specifically, the emotion of “anger” in Charles Dickens’s “Bleak House” was predominantly observed in chapters 0-2200, with an emotion value ranging between 20-30. This study provides a robust methodological framework for dissecting the complex emotional expressions in English and American literary texts, thereby enhancing readers’ comprehension of the nuanced meanings embedded within these works.

Human hunger as a memory process.

Hunger refers to (1) the meaning of certain bodily sensations; (2) a mental state of anticipation that food will be good to eat; and (3) an organizing principal, which prioritizes feeding. Definitions (1) and (2) are the focus here, as (3) can be considered their consequent. Definition (1) has been linked to energy-depletion models of hunger, but these are no longer thought viable. Definition (2) has been linked to learning and memory (L&M) models of hunger, but these apply just to palatable foods. Nonetheless, L&M probably forms the basis for hunger generally, as damage to declarative memory can eradicate the experience of hunger. Currently, there is no general L&M model of hunger, little understanding of how physiology intersects with a L&M approach, and no understanding of how Definitions (1) and (2) are related. We present a new L&M model of human hunger. People learn associations between internal (e.g., tummy rumbles) and external cues (e.g., brand names) and food. These associations can be to specific foods (episodic memories) or food-related categories (semantic memories). When a cue is encountered, it may lead to food-related memory retrieval. If retrieval occurs, the memory's affective content allows one to know if food will be good to eat now-hunger-a cognitive operation learned in childhood. These memory processes are acutely inhibited during satiety, and chronically by multiple biological parameters, allowing physiology to modulate hunger. Implications are considered for the process of making hunger judgments, thirst, the cephalic phase response, and motivational and lay theories of hunger. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Overcoming Academic Procrastination: A Behavioral-Cognitive Approach

Procrastination, the act of delaying tasks, is an issue affecting students regardless of skin color, age, or gender. Notably, these young students are a significant proportion in the United States that struggle with academic procrastination. This research paper adopts the framework of a behavioral-cognitive psychology approach, employing both cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) and operant conditioning to uncover how academic procrastination occurs. CBT is the forefront instrument proposed to identify the cognitive processes contributing to the behavior procrastination. The role of operant conditioning serves as a tool to unlearn the behavior. The aim of the study was to explore the potential of a behavioral-cognitive approach to addressing the external distractions that can cause academic procrastination. Based on the current literature available regarding how CBT and operant conditioning are applied, a conclusion was formed. The study contains a preliminary model that aims to reduce academic procrastination by unlearning the behavior and addressing the underlying causes. Further research on the impact operant conditioning holds to influence an individual is required to solidify the findings.

Study on the Cognitive Mechanisms of Stigmatized Discourse Production in Western Media Based on Cognitive Attention

Stigma is the negative interpreation of a certain individual/group by a stigmatizer for a specific purpose under the influence of public opinion. In order to break the state of being stigmatized, the key is to understand the generation processes of stigmatized discourses. This study puts forward a theoretical framework for analyzing the cognitive mechanisms and strategies of stigmatized discourse generation by combining cognitive attention with proximization theory. In order to validate this framework, this study then takes the western reports on Russia-Ukraine conflict as an example to analyze its production strategies both in terms of cognition and language. It turns out that the framework has strong explanatory power in investigating the generation processes, different attention strategies and the language expressions of the stigma. It is helpful to understand the cognitive operation behind stigmatization and select the corresponding anti-stigma discourse to de-construct these negative conceptualizations.

Spanish Phonological Awareness in Kindergarten Uniquely Supports Second-Grade English Morphological Awareness in Spanish-English Dual Language Learners.

This study investigated the longitudinal, cross-linguistic developmental relationships of phonological awareness (PA), letter identification (letter ID), and morphological awareness (MA) in 71 heritage Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) in kindergarten and second grade. Multiple linear regression was used to test if kindergarten Spanish and English PA (sound elision and sound matching) and letter ID significantly predicted later English MA (oral derived word stress judgment, oral derivational morpheme blending, written derived word decomposition, and morphologically complex word spelling) performance in second grade. Cross-linguistically, the PA skill of sound matching in kindergarten was the most reliable predictor of MA in second grade for Spanish-English DLLs. Spanish PA explained the majority of variation in oral MA skills in English. English PA was only uniquely predictive of written MA skills in English. Both the cognitive operation of sound sequence manipulation in PA (elision or matching) and the modality of morpheme representation in MA (oral or written) appear to mediate the transfer of metalinguistic knowledge in Spanish-English DLL development in early elementary school. Results are discussed within the context of classroom practices.

Self-pacing ameliorates recall deficit when listening to vocoded discourse: a cochlear implant simulation.

In spite of its apparent ease, comprehension of spoken discourse represents a complex linguistic and cognitive operation. The difficulty of such an operation can increase when the speech is degraded, as is the case with cochlear implant users. However, the additional challenges imposed by degraded speech may be mitigated to some extent by the linguistic context and pace of presentation. An experiment is reported in which young adults with age-normal hearing recalled discourse passages heard with clear speech or with noise-band vocoding used to simulate the sound of speech produced by a cochlear implant. Passages were varied in inter-word predictability and presented either without interruption or in a self-pacing format that allowed the listener to control the rate at which the information was delivered. Results showed that discourse heard with clear speech was better recalled than discourse heard with vocoded speech, discourse with a higher average inter-word predictability was better recalled than discourse with a lower average inter-word predictability, and self-paced passages were recalled better than those heard without interruption. Of special interest was the semantic hierarchy effect: the tendency for listeners to show better recall for main ideas than mid-level information or detail from a passage as an index of listeners' ability to understand the meaning of a passage. The data revealed a significant effect of inter-word predictability, in that passages with lower predictability had an attenuated semantic hierarchy effect relative to higher-predictability passages. Results are discussed in terms of broadening cochlear implant outcome measures beyond current clinical measures that focus on single-word and sentence repetition.

Cognitive manipulation of emotional and non-emotional information in working memory of patients with depression: a rigid processing style.

Cognitive psychology is one of the important perspectives to understand depression. Compared with previous studies, recent researchers increasingly focused on the exploration of the comprehensive cognitive process of patients with depression. The cognitive operation ability of working memory is an important comprehensive cognitive process, which reflects how individuals establish representations. This is the basis for the formation of experience and schema. The purpose of this study is to explore whether there are abnormalities in cognitive manipulation in patients with depression, and to analyze its possible role in the pathogenesis and maintenance of depression. In this cross-sectional study, depressed patients was enrolled in the clinical psychology department of Beijing Chaoyang Hospital as the case group, while healthy individuals were recruited in the hospital and social meetings as the control group. Hamilton Depression Scale (HAMD)-17, Hamilton Anxiety Scale (HAMA) and rumination thinking scale (RRS) were adopted as measurement tools, and working memory operation tasks were adopted to test each subject, so as to measure their cognitive operation ability. A total of 78 depressed patients and 81 healthy individuals completed the study. The results showed that the rumination level of the case group was higher than that of the control group, and the difference was significant first; Second, in the "inconsistent" condition, the case group under different stimulus conditions when the response was significantly higher than the control group; Thirdly, the "cognitive operation consumption" value of the case group was significantly higher than that of the control group under the three stimulus conditions, among which, the operational cost value of sadness-neutral stimulus was significantly higher than that of the other two stimulus conditions. Patients with depression had obvious difficulties in cognitive manipulation of information with different values in working memory, which reflected in the fact that it took them longer time to adjust the relationship between information and established new representations. Among them, patients with depression had a higher degree of cognitive manipulation of sad stimuli, indicating that their abnormal cognitive manipulation had certain emotion specificity. Finally, the difficulty of cognitive operation was closely related to the level of rumination.