Cocoa Farming Households Research Articles

Is there a LINKAGE between credit access, land use, and crop diversification in achieving food security? Evidence from cocoa-producing households in Nigeria

Cocoa farmers in Nigeria adopt crop diversification to safeguard the food security of their households. Although credit and land are thought to play a vital role in crop diversification, they continue to have limited access to credit and land. This study investigated the linkages between access to credit, land use, crop diversification, and food security with a focus on cocoa farming households. A multistage sampling procedure was used to obtain data for the study. Data were analyzed with the aid of descriptive statistics, the Heifindahl index, the Tobit regression model, the food consumption score, and the ordered Logit regression model. The results for the entire respondents showed mean values of 55 years for age, 31 years for farming experience, 6 people for household size, and 5 ha for farm size. Heifindahl index shows 38.67 % of the respondents had low crop diversification in the study area. Tobit regression model reveals that access to credit, farming experience, cooperative organization, access to extension service, farm size, distance to farms, and labour are the main albeit significant factors that determine crop diversification among cocoa farming households. Food consumption score revealed that 46.67 % were poor, 30.67 % were at the borderline and about 27.67 % were within the acceptable threshold. The ordered logit model revealed that crop diversification index, formal education, access to credit, farm size, land use, and farming experience have a significant influence on the food security of households. The study concluded that there is a positive relationship between access to credit, land use, crop diversification, and food security. Therefore, the government and financial institutions should make credit facilities accessible to cocoa farmers to improve their livelihood.

ASSESSMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL WELLBEING STATUS OF COCOA FARMING HOUSEHOLDS IN SOUTH-SOUTH ZONE, NIGERIA

This study assessed the psychological and social wellbeing status of cocoa farming households in Southsouth zone of Nigeria. A multi-staged sampling technique was used in selecting 240 Cocoa Farming Households (CFH) that were selected for this study. Data were collected from primary source using structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages and mean ratings were employed to analyze the data collected. Major findings revealed a grand mean of 2.85 indicating that social wellbeing status of the rural households is moderate with the mean of social integration ranking highest (x=3.14), followed by social contribution (x = 2.81), Social coherence (x = 2.78) and social acceptance (x = 2.77) that ranked 2nd and 3rd respectively. The grand mean of psychological wellbeing of rural households was 2.90, indicating a moderate psychological wellbeing status with the mean of variables under "Purpose i n life" having the highest mean of 3.18, this was followed by those under “Self-Acceptance” (x= 3.00) and "Personal growth" (x= 2.87) that came 2nd and 3rd respectively. The correlation result (r = 0.527) indicated a significant relationship existing between the cocoa farming households' psychological wellbeing and their social wellbeing status in South-South zone, Nigeria. The study concluded that both the psychological and social wellbeing status of the households are moderate, not high and therefore recommends that Extension agencies and Government need to reorientate cocoa farming households to keep them in the right frame of mind and attitude as they carry out their farming activities as well as give them financial assistance that will boost their level of production with increased income and in turn lift their social status and general wellbeing.

Impact of access to cash remittances on cocoa yield in Southwestern Nigeria

Access to cash remittances has a positive impact on the food security of people living in developing countries. However, little is known about the impact of access to cash remittances concerning cocoa yield. Therefore, the study investigates the impact of access to cash remittances on cocoa yield. A multistage sampling technique was used to select 300 cocoa farming households for the study. The data were analysed using the exponential double hurdle model (Churdle) estimation process, inverse probability weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA), and endogenous switching regression model (ESRM). According to the ATU estimate, the average farmer would produce a yield of 0.824 times more when he/she has access to cash remittances. The conditional treatment effect (ATT), which assesses the impact of access to cash remittances on cocoa yield, was correspondingly approximately 0.828 and statistically significant at 1 %. As a result, the typical farmer who has access to cash remittances would produce a yield that is 0.828 times more than it would be if he/she did not have access to cash remittances. The study found that access to cash remittances has a positive impact on cocoa yield among farmers in rural Nigeria after adjusting for both observable and unobserved factors.

Struggles over staples production? Constraints and food crops technologies adoptions of smallholder cocoa farmers in Ghana’s Bono, Ahafo and Western North regions

Issues of food insufficiency among smallholder cocoa farming households persist due to low attention paid to food crops production. Employing multivariate probit technique on cross sectional data collected from cocoa farmers in Ghana, the study assessed dynamics in acceptance of four complementary agricultural technologies including improved variety, inorganic fertilizer, row planting and plant spacing. Socioeconomic and institutional factors impeding acceptance of technologies were identified. The suggestions are that, timely supply of inputs and relaxation of rules of acquisition of credit should be established. Institutional factors could be tackled more by adequately resourcing research and extension linkage systems in the developments and dissemination of improved agricultural technologies.

Impact of Swollen Shoot Disease on the Livelihoods of Smallholder Cocoa Farmers in Côte d'Ivoire

Cocoa Swollen Shoot Disease (CSSD) due to badnavirus species is endemic in West Africa and has been causing significant and irreversible economy losses for smallholder cocoa farmers in infected areas in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. The impact of the disease on the smallholder farmers’ livelihoods has been investigated at cocoa farm households level in Côte d’Ivoire. To this end, the propensity score matching method was used to construct a counterfactual and to compare groups capturing the situation of affected households before the disease affects their plantations, based on the observable characteristics of non affected households. A total of 800 cocoa farmers were randomly interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. The results showed significant differences in expenditures for children's schooling and health between households with plantations infected by the disease and those with non-infected plantations. It was also found that households with swollen shoot in their cocoa plantation used less modern health services and invested less in children's education. The results imply that swollen shoot control policies and strategies should take into account socioeconomic factors.

Impact of Swollen Shoot Disease on the Livelihoods of Smallholder Cocoa farmers in Côte d'Ivoire

The Cocoa Swollen Shoot Disease (CSSD) due to badnavirus species is endemic in West Africa and caused significant and irreversible economy losses for smallholder cocoa farmers in infected areas in Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire. The impact of the disease on the small farmers livelihoods has been investigated at cocoa farm households level in Côte d‘Ivoire. For that, the propensity score matching method was used to construct a counterfactual and to compair group capturing the situation of affected households before the disease occuring on their plantation, based on the observable characteristics of non affected households. A total of 800 cocoa farmers were randomly interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire. Results shown significant differences of expenditures for children's schooling and health of household’s with plantations infected by the disease compared to non affected. It was also found that households with swollen shoot in their cocoa plantation use less modern health services and invest less in children's education.

Climate change adaptation strategies of cocoa farmers in the Wassa East District: Implications for climate services in Ghana

Studies have generally shown that climate change has tremendous impacts on cocoa productivity. Although there is an increasing proliferation of studies on adaptation strategies of cocoa farmers, many of the studies are not linked to climate services that provide information to help ensure climate smart decision-making among cocoa farmers. This study investigates the perception and adaptation strategies of cocoa farmers to draw insights into climate services necessary for adaptation. Through a semi-structured questionnaire survey of 150 cocoa farming households and Focus Group Discussions, the study found that key adaptation strategies include changing planting dates, diversification to non-farm activities, planting improved cocoa varieties, crop diversification, and tree planting. Age and information seeking behaviour of farmers have positive influence on access to climate services which serves as a basis for these adaptation strategies. The existing climate services are not comprehensive enough to cover the wide array of adaptation needs of farmers. Current services focus on only dissemination of rainfall and temperature information through radio and television without providing information on other adaptation needs such as planning and harvesting dates. The findings suggest that there is a need for scaling up access to climate services in areas of planting services and crop improvement through zero literacy devices if cocoa farmers’ adaptation to climate impacts are to be addressed.

Assessing the determinants of smallholder cocoa farmers’ adoption of agronomic practices for climate change adaptation in Ghana

AbstractOver the years, cocoa has been the bedrock of the Ghanaian economy and a source of livelihood for most cocoa farming households. Empirical studies have established that cocoa farmers have begun to adopt various agronomic measures for climate change adaptation. However, factors that influence farmers’ decisions to adopt these agronomic practices to enable successful adaptation to climate change are least investigated. The study aimed at investigating smallholder cocoa farmers’ decisions to adopt agronomic practices for climate change adaptation in Ghana. The study adopted a mixed method approach to research, and involved 259 cocoa farmers. Using the thematic and multivariate probit regression model (MVP) to data analysis, the results revealed that farmers’ decisions to adopt soil conservation, pruning/shade management and planting of new crop varieties are determined by a number of mixed factors including access to agricultural land, access to credit, farmer farm experience and access to extension services. The study recommends the need for the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources together with the traditional authorities and other relevant land sector agencies to develop and implement context-specific and appropriate land-use policy strategies that support access to sustainable land for adoption of climate smart agricultural practices. Again, the study recommends the need for the Ministry of Food and Agriculture to deploy more extension agents into rural cocoa farming communities to take farmers through more pragmatic agronomic practices for climate change adaptation and improves returns in investment in cocoa farming.

Effects of Risk on Cocoa Farmers’ Profitability in Ondo State, Nigeria

This study analysed cocoa farmers’ attitude to risk and effects on their income in Ondo State, Nigeria. Multistage sampling technique was used to select a representative sample (234) for this study. Attitudinal Scale Approach (ASA) model, Gross margin and Likert’s scale were used to analysed the data collected. Results showed that the mean age of the respondents was 50.27 years with an average of 15.98 years of experience. The sources of risks perceived by the cocoa farming households as threats to cocoa production were Natural risks (63.68%), social risks (88.89%), economic risks (75.21%), production risk (52.14%) and marketing risks (76.92%). The result of ASA model using Likert’s scale showed that 37.61%, 36.75% and 25.64% of the respondents were respectively categorized as risk averse, neutral and preferring individuals. Results of costs and returns analysis of cocoa farms in the study area indicated that the average farm’s profitability level wasN185,423,725. Regression result showed that the variables that determine farmer’s income included social risks (p<0.001), economic risks (p<0.001) and production risks (p<0.001) and marketing risks (p<0.001). The study concluded that plant diseases, theft of the crop, low market demand, low labour supply and Instability of price among others are the severe types of risks that affect cocoa productivity and all year source of risk to cocoa production in the study area.

English

Mining and cocoa production are important livelihoods for people in Ghana, particularly in rural communities like Upper Denkyira West District. However, mining activities can have negative impacts on cocoa production and access to basic necessities for the sustenance of the people. This study sought to investigate cocoa farmers’ perception of the impact of mining on socio- economic activities in Upper Denkyira West District and the determinants of their choice of alternative livelihoods. A structured questionnaire was used to collect primary data from 211 respondents who were selected via a multi-stage sampling method for the study. The study found that cocoa farming households agree that mining has negative impacts on socio-economic activities in the district. It was also revealed that about two-thirds of the cocoa farming households were engaged in farm-based and nonfarm-based alternative livelihoods, in addition to cocoa farming. Results from the empirical multinomial logistic regression model showed that sex, years of formal education, farm income, technical skills, extension services, and perception that mining have reduced farm sizes, and farm outputs significantly influence cocoa farming households’ choice of alternative livelihood. The study recommends the need for policies aimed at promoting skills acquisition and facilitating access to markets for products of alternative livelihoods. Key words: Mining, cocoa, alternative livelihoods, multinomial logistic regression, Upper Denkyira West District, Ghana.

Participation in UTZ-RA voluntary cocoa certification scheme and its impact on smallholder welfare: Evidence from Ghana

The study analyzed the determinants and extent of participation in UTZ-RA cocoa certification program as well as its impacts on smallholder farmers' welfare. Using cross-sectional data collected from 296 cocoa farmers in Ghana and employing the Cragg double hurdle model to analyse participation, the study also controls for sample selection bias using propensity score matching technique. The results revealed that household size, years of formal education, non-farm income, sex of respondent, quantity of man-hours of labour used in cocoa production as well as dependency ratio influenced participation. The findings also reveal that the UTZ-RA cocoa certification program increased yield and household income. It however had a negative impact on the food security status of cocoa farming households. Data from this paper has demonstrated that increased productivity and income from certification of commodities might not necessarily lead to enhanced food security status of enrolled farmers. The study recommends that, the Rainforest Alliance scheme should consider food security indicators in the next revised edition of their code of conduct which has since been finalized for implementation. Employment of different food security measurement tools in the revised codes is highly recommended. This will provide a better understanding of the synergies and trade-offs that exist or are likely to exist between cash crop production and food security.

Index-based weather insurance for perennial crops: A case study on insurance supply and demand for cocoa farmers in Ghana

Adaptation to climate change is crucial for many farming households around the world. Due to path dependencies, perennial crop farmers often face a confined set of adaptation options. This paper explores the potential for index-based weather insurance for cocoa as an example of a perennial crop. The paper presents empirical findings on determinants of interest in index insurance based on a sample of 313 cocoa farming households in Ghana. Further, results of key informant interviews with representatives relevant for the planning and implementation of index insurance are presented.A key finding on the demand side is that more than 90% of the sampled cocoa farmers are interested in index insurance. The main determinants for interest were ownership of the cocoa farm, access to extension services, and age of the cocoa farm. For the supply side, main findings are that while stakeholders showed a general appreciation of the conceptual benefits of index insurance, a plethora of disadvantages and obstacles relating to insurance implementation were mentioned ranging from insufficient data and infrastructure, over low profitability, to wrong perceptions of insurance among farmers. The paper concludes that structural changes to the cocoa economy are necessary to address these impediments in the long run.

Microfinance services and the productivity of cocoa family farms in Cameroon

PurposeThis study aims to assess the effects of microfinance institution (MFI) services on the productivity of family farms in Cameroon, in the region of Mbam and Kim. It will be a question, therefore, of determining the level and determiners of the outputs of family farms, in particular those concerned by the cultures of cocoa, beneficiaries of the agricultural services of MFIs.Design/methodology/approachThe authors use the Blinder (1973) and Oaxaca (1973) model of decomposition of the productivity differential between beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of agricultural credits on a sample of 130 cocoa farming households and four MFIs of the same area between 2008 and 2011.FindingsThe yield gap between beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries of agricultural credits is estimated at 0.19 tons per hectare. This gap is explained positively by the financial aid variable, the farm size variable, which is significant in the explanation of the beneficiaries' level of returns and the constant term. On the other hand, all the socio-economic variables of the farmers contribute to reduce this gap of productivity.Research limitations/implicationsThis financial assistance from CVECA is essential to increase agricultural yields because it helps to cancel out some structural barriers. However, as this improvement in yields is only possible for large farms, the services of the MFIs would rather favor extensification policies. Nevertheless, the study results are limited by the negative effects of the socio-economic characteristics of the farmers on these yields, the study having been revealed without any selectivity bias.Originality/valueThis study seeks to reverse the trend that in rural areas, MFIs are financing agriculture to increase extensification rather than enhancing intensification in sub-Saharan Africa by challenging the role of MFI services in intensification.

The impact of microfinance services on the efficiency of family farms in Sub-Saharan Africa: the case of Cameroon

PurposeDoes MFIs agricultural credit influence the determinants of the efficiency of SFF which are socio-economic factors of the farmers but also agricultural endowments of family farms? This paper aims to study the contribution of MFI services on improving the technical efficiency of SFFs in Cameroon.Design/methodology/approachThe stochastic frontier analysis (SFA) model permits the estimation of the technical efficiency indicators for beneficiaries and nonbeneficiaries of agricultural credits on a sample of 130 cocoa farming households and four MFIs of the same area between 2008 and 2011. The censored tobit model is used to assess the determinants of technical efficiency.FindingsThe results show that the SFF beneficiaries of agricultural credit have an average technical efficiency of 0.68 inferior to that of nonbeneficiaries (0.72) as expected. They are, respectively, at 0.32 and 0.28 of their full productive capacities. The results of the censored Tobit model show that socioeconomic characteristics of the producer such as age and gender explain negatively, while experience explains positively the technical efficiency of SFFs.Research limitations/implicationsAlthough without any selectivity bias, this study indicates the essential character of the socioeconomic factors in the amplification of the role of the MFIs credit on the efficiency of SFFs.Practical implicationsStrategies to improve the efficiency of SFFs require an increase in MFI credits, primarily targeting young, experienced and female farmers.Originality/valueThis study examines the efficiency of SFFs by highlighting the interaction between the socio-economic factors of farmers and the credit of MFIs. It also points to the problem of monitoring the implementation of agricultural financing.

Stakeholders’ perceptions on sustainability transition pathways of the cocoa value chain towards improved livelihood of small-scale farming households in Cameroon

ABSTRACT Given the persistent poor livelihood of cocoa-farming households, future climate predictions and the worldwide demand pressure for higher cocoa quality and productivity, there is still a strong need to find new approaches that guarantee a sustainable cocoa future in cocoa-producing countries amongst which Cameroon is one of them. This exploratory research investigates potential future pathways for the cocoa sector in Cameroon by mapping the perceptions of actors involved in the socio-technical regime. Qualitative expert interviews, structured questionnaires and field observation, as well as a focus group discussion have been applied to understand how a sustainability transition can be triggered. The study shows that actors envisage a sustainability change which determines their actions; however, their perceptions towards future transitions are not actively coordinated. Actors are not finding a way of adopting new organizational structures and letting a transition occur effectively, like in the case of certification standards. An alignment of perceptions and activities, and a stronger cooperation between the private and public are strongly recommended. The study encourages to consider a coordination of actors’ perceptions towards future scenarios as a starting point to study sustainability transitions.

Ologit analysis of determinants of vulnerability to food insecurity by cocoa farming households in Southern Asunafo, Republic of Ghana

Purpose. Using ologit analytical tool, this study examined the determinants of vulnerability to food insecurity by cocoa farming households in Southern Asunafo, Ghana and assessed the coping strategies adopted by the farmers against food shortage related shocks. 
 Methodology / approach. A two-stage sampling procedure was used to elicit cross sectional data from a total of 150 cocoa farmers across the 11 settlements in the study area using a semi-structured questionnaire. CARE and WFP (2003) Household Coping Strategy Index (CSI) and Factor analysis were used to determine vulnerability to food insecurity status of the households and ordered logit regression was used to identify the determinants of vulnerability. The data was analyzed using STATA software. 
 Results. Findings from the study revealed that 35.33 % of the households were moderately vulnerable while 33.33 % and 31.34 % were mildly and severely vulnerable respectively in the study area. Borrowing food, eating seed stock, begging for food and reducing meals were the major coping strategies adopted by the households. The ordered logit regression result shows that being a female household head increases the probability of being vulnerable. Age of household head was found to be significant (p < 0.05) and negatively influencing Vulnerability to food insecurity. Household dependants and number of coping strategies were found to be significant (p<0.05) and positively influencing Vulnerability. Education level, farm income and labor hour use were found to be significant (p < 0.1) and negatively influencing vulnerability. Marital Status, Access to extension and off-farm occupation were significant (p > 0.05) and negatively influencing household vulnerability to food insecurity among the households.
 Originality / scientific novelty. Author’s developed econometric model is very useful is empirically assessing determinants of vulnerability of cocoa farming households to food poverty in southern Asunafo district, and to form a basis for decision making regarding achieving food security in Southern Asonafo. The proposed method offers great potentials for achieving safe, nutritious, and accessible food security condition amidst the challenge of food poverty.
 Practical value / implications. The study concluded that policies that address the major determinants of vulnerability such as education, off-farm occupation, access to extension services and income diversifications with emphasis on cocoa female farmers’ empowerment are will enhance resilience of rural farming households to food insecurity in the study area.

Does fertiliser use improve household welfare? Evidence from Ghana’s cocoa industry

ABSTRACTThis article analyses welfare impacts of fertiliser adoption using data collected from 838 cocoa farm households in the four key cocoa-producing regions in Ghana. Using propensity score matching (PSM), the study indicates that application of fertiliser leads to significant gains in farm yields, farm income, consumption expenditure, consumption expenditure per capita, and value of productive farm assets. The article concludes that cocoa-specific programmes such as Cocoa High Technology (Cocoa Hi-tech), initiated to intensify the application of improved farm technologies such as fertiliser, should be strengthened through effective and efficient management systems.

Welfare impact of pesticides management practices among smallholder cocoa farmers in Ghana

The simultaneous adoption of pesticides management practices has the potential of boosting productivity and improving the welfare of smallholder cocoa farmers in Ghana. This study identified the factors influencing farmers' choice of the combination options of pesticides management practices using cross-sectional data randomly collected from 838 cocoa farm households. The results from the multinomial logit model revealed that farmers' decision to adopt insecticides only, fungicides only or a combination of the two is influenced by different socio-economic, farm-specific and institutional factors as well as farmers' perception about incidence of pests and diseases on their farms. Using both multinomial endogenous switching regression (MESR) framework and the inverse-probability-weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) estimator, the adoption of pesticides management practices improves households' welfare. However, the highest payoff was achieved when insecticides and fungicides were adopted simultaneously. The results of the study implies that farm-level cocoa-specific programmes such as Cocoa Disease and Pest Control Programme (CODAPEC) promoting the use of pesticides to improve productivity in Ghana's cocoa industry should be strengthened to enhance the simultaneous adoption of both insecticides and fungicides.

Competing in a world of value chains

There is a saying in Ghana that ‘Ghana is cocoa, and cocoa is Ghana’. Not only is Ghana the second-largest producer of cocoa in the world, but cocoa is an integral part of the nation’s fabric. It is the country’s most important export, accounting for 8% of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP)_and 30% of export earnings. It also provides employment for approximately 4 million cocoa-farming households, most of which are family-run on plots of less than 1.2 acres and suffer from food and income insecurity.

Farm Operations and Injury Risks to Children in Cocoa Households in the Western Region of Ghana: Implications for Extension Education

Cocoa remains the most important cash crop in Ghana, with the Western Region being the leading producer. More recently, concerns have been raised about ethical cocoa production, especially regarding child labour. Drawing on historical sources and a survey, the research assessed the injury risks of children in cocoa farming in the Western Region of Ghana and its implications for extension education. The study concludes that cocoa farm households in Ghana, typically in Western Region, engage children in the households in almost all aspects of cocoa production operations as a way of socializing them into the family cocoa production business – a complex and socially tolerable practice in Ghana. The extent of engagement however, is low across the operations. The operations engaged by the children are generally repetitive and include carrying loads, land preparation, planting, fertilizer application, harvesting, and breaking cocoa pods. More importantly, the study concludes that cocoa farmers are more at risk to injuries caused by repetitive strain, and lifting and carrying of loads, which are the work normally done by children. Nonetheless, the focus of extension education in Ghana has been on adult farmers in design and content. To effectively manage the risk associated with this complex phenomenon, the study emphasized the need for a holistic extension education that includes child-sensitive labour practices in cocoa production, focusing on the entire farm household. This will best empower cocoa households to ethically and health-wise socialise children as part of a livelihood system for sustainable cocoa production.