Coal Generation Research Articles

Monitoring Aeolian Erosion from Surface Coal Mines in the Mongolian Gobi Using InSAR Time Series Analysis

Surface mining in the southeastern Gobi Desert has significant environmental impacts, primarily due to the creation of large coal piles that are highly susceptible to aeolian processes. Using spaceborne remote sensing and numerical simulations, we investigated erosional processes and their environmental impacts. Our primary tool was Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (InSAR) data from Sentinel-1 imagery collected between 2017 and 2022. We analyzed these data using phase angle information from the Small Baseline InSAR time series framework. The time series analyses revealed intensive aeolian erosion in the coal piles, represented as thin deformation patterns along the potential pathways of aerodynamic transportation. Further analysis of multispectral data, combined with correlations between wind patterns and trajectory simulations, highlighted the detrimental impact of coal dust on the surrounding environment and the mechanism of aeolian erosion. The lack of mitigation measures, such as water spray, appeared to exacerbate erosion and dust generation. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using publicly available remote sensing data to monitor coal mining activities and their environmental hazards. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of coal dust generation processes in surface mining operations as well as the aeolian erosion mechanism in desert environments.

Optimal replacement of coal with wind and battery energy storage

Abstract Electric utilities are considering replacing their coal power plants with renewables and energy storage to reduce emissions. However, they have also expressed concerns about operational changes and system reliability brought by these replacements. Utilities in remote rural areas face more challenges as they also face energy insecurity while having limited interconnections to wider systems and reliance on imported fuels. Therefore, it is critical for remote utilities to understand different coal replacement approaches and their impacts on system expansion, operation and energy security. In this paper, we define and investigate three approaches to replace coal using wind and batteries: 1) replacing exact coal generation, 2) replacing at least coal generation, and 3) replacing total energy provided by coal. We develop a case study inspired by the small remote grid in Fairbanks, Alaska, which has a single limited interconnection with the grid south of it. We utilize a power system expansion and economic dispatch model that co-optimizes the capacities of wind and batteries required for each approach and the hourly dispatch of energy and reserves for one year. We further analyze the operational cost variability under fixed and fluctuating fuel prices. We find that replacing the exact coal generation requires minimal operational changes, but also significantly more wind and battery capacities. In contrast, replacing total energy provided by coal induces more cycling in other resources, challenging grids with limited flexibility-providing resources. However, replacing total energy provided by coal allows more generation variability in response to fuel price fluctuations, enhancing energy security.

Evaluating the potential of green hydrogen, ammonia and urea in Lao PDR energy transitions.

Abstract We report the results of a systematic evaluation of the redeployment of surplus hydropower electricity to produce green hydrogen (H2), ammonia (NH3) and urea (CH4N2O) in Lao PDR. Participatory system mapping (PSM) workshops convened across multiple Lao PDR ministries revealed both direct and indirect opportunities and risks as probable consequences of green H2, NH3 and urea production. Participants debated and prioritized green urea fertilizer to replace “grey” imports; coal co-firing; and fuel cells as the products that contribute to the opportunities and manage the risks identified by the PSM process. Techno-economic modelling indicates the levelized cost of urea (US$467/tonne) is competitive with Thai imports, associated with opportunities for trading carbon offsets. Carbon credits were not sufficient to offset the additional co-firing costs of coal generation, and fuel cells are a likely future enterprise. A targeted capacity building and training program was a central pillar of a systems-based dissemination strategy to develop necessary technical and planning skills and community and awareness raising. The collated research results represent an integrated foundation to draft the Lao PDR National green H2 and NH3 road map and action plan, and a cross-sectoral revision of energy transition development plans.

The influence of the composition and origin of ash and slag waste from coal generation on the response of organisms used in biotesting

Introduction. Different conditions of origin of ash and slag wastes has a significant impact on their final properties. Material and methods. The work is devoted to the search and establishment of dependencies of the influence of the origin of ash and slag waste on their chemical and biological parameters by a comprehensive assessment of the results of the impact of ash and slag waste on the vital signs of hydrobionts. Results. The values of the responses of hydrobionts for ash and slag wastes formed from coals of various origins were investigated. The component composition of aqueous extracts from the studied ash slag samples was evaluated. The dependences of the influence of the conditions of origin of ash and slag wastes on their final chemical and biological properties were established. Limitations. An assessment of the biological and chemical properties of ash and slag waste generated during the combustion of coal from six different deposits was carried out. The total volume was 95 samples. Conclusion. Ash and slag wastes formed from the burning of brown coals have the most pronounced toxic effect on hydrobionts, unlike ash and slag from coal.

Experimental and molecular dynamics study on the influence of surfactants on the wettability of different rank coal

This study sought to enhance the wettability of coal surfaces to minimize coal mine dust generation and improve underground working conditions. To this end, we evaluated the effect of different surfactants on different coal ranks. Through molecular dynamics simulations, we constructed different coal-surfactant-water molecular systems and elucidated the microscopic migration pattern of water molecules on coal surfaces. Our findings thus provided insights into the wetting mechanisms of coal of varying ranks from multiple perspectives. Our findings indicated that the wettability of coal decreases with higher coal metamorphism. However, adding surfactants to water significantly improves the wetting effect of liquids on coal. Notably, a 1.0 wt% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution exhibited the smallest indirect contact angles with long flame coal and gas coal samples, measuring 25.1° and 25.8°, respectively. Conversely, a coconut diethanolamide (CDEA) solution at a 1.0 wt% concentration demonstrated superior wetting effects on anthracite coal samples, with a contact angle of 25.7°. Upon surfactant addition, the diffusion coefficient of water molecules notably increased, with maximum values reaching 2.32Å2/ps, 2.56Å2/ps, and 2.15Å2/ps, respectively. Moreover, both the total potential energy of the coal molecular layer and the surface electrostatic potential exhibited an increasing trend. This enhancement strengthens the adsorption capacity of coal molecular surfaces for water molecules, thereby promoting coal wettability. Collectively, our findings provide new insights for optimizing surfactant use and efficiently mitigating dust in coal mines.

Tracing a caring transition policy for the German coal region Lusatia

Coal mining and generation adversely affect several ecosystems, including climate, water and land. On the other hand, questions of justice and socio-economic considerations of affected regions are crucial for a successful coal phase-out, underlining the need for a nexus perspective. This includes taking a gender perspective, which thus far has received relatively little attention. We contribute to closing this gap through our study on the coal region Lusatia in Germany, where an unprecedentedly high amount of money is spent to shape the regional transition. The allocation of these funds is the subject of a contentious debate about which societal needs are considered most urgent to be met. We conducted a critical discourse analysis examining relevant policy documents and analyzing dominant ideas about what a successful transition in Lusatia should look like. Based on feminist care theory and interviews with locally organized women, we show that concepts of care for humans and nonhumans are severely underdeveloped. To address this gap, we propose based on women’s emerging discourse four pillars of care work as social infrastructure that should be central to transition processes: (1) aftercare for social and ecological residuals of coal mining, (2) social cohesion, (3) democratic care services, and (4) caring democracy: democratic decision-making on how to care.

Возможности и проблемы энергогенерации в Республике Тыва

RELEVANCE. The energy sector forms the basis for functioning of other economic sectors and social services. Presentday technologies of energy generation are based on using coal, gas, oil, hydro, nuclear and renewable sources. PURPOSE. Analysis of the current state of energy generation in the Republic of Tyva, identification of drivers for development and optimization of its structure. RESULTS. A review is made of the current global trends in energy generation. Directions for diversifying energy generation sources are proposed, e.g. using both imported and coal seam gas as well as hydro resources along with coal. CONCLUSIONS. Focusing on only one energy source reduces the energy security of the region. Energy shortages and the presence of costly diesel-based power generation hinder the economic development of the Republic of Tyva. In the republic that has extensive coal reserves, coal generation has to introduce modern “clean coal” technologies. A high share of thermal power plants in the structure of the coal-fired generation capacity will allow the development of cogeneration using innovative, environmentally friendly Russian technologies. Options for solving the challenge of energy shortage in Tuva in the future until 2035 are proposed.

Особенности сжигания композиционных водоугольных топлив

Russia has large coal reserves, on the average up to 173 billion tons. Although, the share of coal generation in Russia is relatively small (about 20–22 %), it reaches 65 % in the Siberian Federal District. Russia cannot deny coal, but it is necessary to update and improve energy efficiency of Thermal Power Plants (TPP) and boiler houses that burn coal. Currently, technologies have been developed to produce and use composite coal-water fuel (CWF) with various additives, primarily of organic origin to improve its target characteristics. A study of the characteristics of such coal-water suspensions has proved the promising outlook of their use as fuel in large and small Thermal Power Plants, both from an economic and environmental safety points of view. However, the lack of experimental data on the issues of combustion of composite coal-water fuel in bench-scale and semi-industrial conditions hinders the further development of CWF technology. Thus, it is relevant to study the features of combustion of composite coal-water fuels from coals of varying degrees of metamorphism. To prepare experimental batches of composite CWF, raw coals and coal slurries of various stages of metamorphism (grades D, SS, T) have been used. They were burned in a bench-scale semi-industrial plant. The research results have been processed using the methods of mathematical statistics and regression analysis. The influence of mechanical activation of CWF on the viscosity and temperature of its ignition and combustion has been established. The features of combustion of composite coal-water fuel using pneumomechanical injectors of two types are determined. The composition of harmful emissions during the combustion of CWF has been determined. The possibility to use composite coal-water fuel to ignite high-power boilers has been established. It has been proved that the combustion of CWF is environmentally safer compared to the combustion of coal and other types of fuel.

Targeted Stimulation of Micropores by CS2 Extraction on Molecular of Coal.

The targeted stimulation of micropores based on the transformation of coal's molecular structure is proposed due to the chemical properties and difficult-to-transform properties of micropores. Carbon disulfide (CS2) extraction is used as a targeted stimulation to reveal the internal evolution mechanism of micropore transformation. The variations of microcrystalline structures and micropores of bituminous coal and anthracite extracted by CS2 were analyzed with X-ray diffraction (XRD), low-temperature carbon dioxide (CO2) adsorption, and molecular simulation. The results show that CS2 extraction, with the broken chain effect, swelling effect, and aromatic ring rearrangement effect, can promote micropore generation of bituminous coal by transforming the microcrystalline structure. Furthermore, CS2 extraction on bituminous coal can decrease the average micropore size and increase the micropore volume and area. The aromatic layer fragmentation effect of CS2 extraction on anthracite, compared to the micropore generation effect of the broken chain effect and swelling effect, can enlarge micropores more remarkably, as it induces an enhancement in the average micropore size and a decline in the micropore volume and area. The research is expected to provide a theoretical basis for establishing reservoir stimulation technology based on CS2 extraction.

Resource classification of coal bed methane and its contribution in energy transition and decarbonization path of oil and gas industry (A synopsis of CBM Life Cycle Analysis)

World economies are becoming increasingly more dependent on energy and countries have a voracious appetite for energy therefore, the need for an abundant clean energy is becoming a necessity. Energy companies are challenging environmental costs of coal bed methane as with advancement of new technology the impact from production of coal bed methane can reduce and to a certain extent avoided or offset. Production of coal bed methane results in changes to the land, to surface water and to ground water systems. Carbon quantification is required to understand, monitor and manage these changes. Previous life cycle analysis for this resource class has lack of process design details because of which there is a knowledge gap in understanding of emission profile of coal bed methane’s production. The objective of this study is to add value and reduce the scientific gap with respect to the production techniques of coal bed methane and its environmental impact. Removal of water continuously from coal seams depletes ground water and may eventually lower surface water flows (streams and rivers). It can also change the flow of groundwater drawing fresh water into the coal seams. To better understand this phenomenon the work establishes the Coal Bed Methane production foundation by in depth understanding of · Coal Bed Methane reservoir types; · Coal Bed Methane depositional environment, generation, and geological distributions; · Coal Bed Methane resource energy supply methods by understanding its construction, production and processing. The study then uses Life Cycle Assessment approach and understands previous emission numbers of Coal Bed Methane’s resource development. The work does systematic analysis and summarizes the previously published Life Cycle Analysis to understand further the potential environmental impacts of resource development of Coal Bed Methane. This will help energy companies to understand the field development, production, and operations of coal bed methane’s resource in terms of carbon numbers thereby optimizing the operations through carbon management thus reducing the potential impacts.

Economic evaluation of decarbonizing the electricity sector in the Dominican Republic

This paper presents an in-depth analysis of decarbonizing the electricity sector in the Dominican Republic, pivotal for addressing climate change and fostering economic growth. Employing the robust-decision making methodology, we studied multiple scenarios via computational models, capturing inputs from stakeholders and evaluating each scenario across 1,000 futures to capture deep uncertainty. Four scenarios were examined: baseline, reference, natural gas, and renewable. The renewable scenario emerged as the most advantageous, proposing the replacement of coal-fired power generation with renewable sources, primarily solar and wind, coupled with batteries. A significant investment, averaging US$3.3 billion, is necessary for this shift toward renewable energy; however, these investments are overcompensated by savings in operational costs. Crucially, this transition promises substantial benefits by 2050: an estimated cumulative average net economic gain of US$2.7 billion, an 8% reduction in average generation costs in 2050, the creation of 160,000 direct jobs, and the avoidance of circa 140 million tons of CO2. The findings underscore the feasibility and economic viability of transitioning to a 55% renewable energy generation by 2050. The study offers a critical roadmap for policymakers, highlighting renewable energy expansion, transmission grid strengthening, and strategic coal generation replacement, thus offering a comprehensive blueprint for the nation's energy transition.

Co-pyrolysis of coal and biomass blends: Impact of pyrolysis temperature and biomass blending on thermal stability of coal, and composition of pyrolysis products

The study investigates the thermal pyrolysis of coal and co-pyrolysis of the coal-sawdust blend (100% blend) in a fixed-bed reactor. The pyrolysis od coal and sawdust was performed at 773 K, 823 K, and 873 K temperature and 30 K min−1 heating rate under nitrogen purge gas (300 mL min−1). Co-pyrolysis coal and biomass was performed at 50%, 100%, and 200% blends at 873 K temperature. The pyrolysis and co-pyrolysis products such as liquid and gas was analysed and compared. Coal pyrolysis resulted higher coal char generation with negligible yield of liquid and gas compared to sawdust. However, 100% co-pyrolyzed blend resulted in higher oil yield % with the increase in temperature from 773 to 873 K with conversion % at 37.35% at 873 K temperature. It was confirmed that the increase in biomass blending percentage with coal, the conversion % increased to 92.8% for the 200% blend. GC/MS characterization of oil from 100% and 200% blended samples revealed that alkane is the main component along with a remarkable Cp value of 1.094 kJ kg−1 K−1 and 0.271 kJ kg−1 K−1 obtained at 823 K and 873 K reaction temperatures respectively. The pyrolysis oil obtained at 873 K at higher biomass to coal blended condition contained higher aromatic compounds. Certain rare comp compounds such as 1-Methyl cyclopropane methanol, 3, 3’- Thiodipropanol, 3- Trans-(1,1-Dimethylethyl)-4, Cis, Methoxycyclohexane-1-ol, 1, 1 -Dimethyl-1-Sinacyclobutane, Octadecane, 2,2,4,15,17,17-Hexamethyl-7, 12-Bis (3, 5,5-Trimethylhexyl), 1,4:3,6-Dianhydro-Alpha-D-Glucopyranose, Hexacosyl acetate and 1,2-Benzenediol, 4-Methyl- present in the copyrolysis oil was also a significant observation in this study.

The health benefits of solar power generation: Evidence from Chile

Renewable energy can yield social benefits through local air quality improvements and their subsequent effects on human health. We estimate some of these benefits using data gathered during the rapid adoption of large-scale solar power generation in Chile over the last decade. Relying on exogenous variation from solar irradiation and incremental solar generation capacity over time, we find that solar energy displaces coal generation and curtails hospital admissions due to respiratory diseases. These effects are largely manifested in cities downwind of and near coal plants that are displaced by the introduction of new solar. The reduction in exposure to air pollution from these displaced coal plants seems to be driving this relationship. Our results help quantify the health benefits that can be achieved through greater renewable energy investments.

Emerging environmental justice issues at the intersection of transportation and electricity systems

Rapid decarbonization of the transportation system is needed to address global climate change, and electrification of the transportation sector will likely be an important strategy to achieve decarbonization goals. While electrification is an effective approach to reducing carbon emissions, it may result in environmental justice consequences that need to be tackled. We discuss four categories of related issues: air quality and health-related equity; technology access; equitable infrastructure development; and a just global supply chain. In regions where grid decarbonization is well under way, transport-related disparities in air quality and health are expected to decrease with electrification. In contrast, in regions that still rely heavily on coal generation, disparities may increase, putting further strain on low-income communities and people of color. The high upfront cost of electric vehicles and limited access to charging present additional challenges for achieving equity in transportation electrification. Meeting the electricity demand of a fully electric vehicle fleet will require rapid expansion of power generation, transmission, and distribution capacity, and the location and design of this infrastructure will have further impacts on communities where it is sited. Here, we offer a perspective on these emerging environmental justice issues at the intersection of transportation and electricity systems and provide policy recommendations and future research directions for electrified transportation. We suggest there is a need for policies targeting electrification and power sector decarbonization in tandem, assessment of barriers to electric vehicle adoption in different groups, development of strategies for community inclusion in infrastructure development decisions, and creation of frameworks to assess equity tradeoffs along the global supply chain supporting electric vehicles and renewable energy technologies.

Repurposing coal plants—regional economic impacts from low carbon generation

Repurposing coal power plants in the United States may provide significant opportunities to incentivize low-carbon and renewable electricity generation created by the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA). Re-using coal sites for their existing electric grid interconnections and infrastructure could reduce costs and provide benefits to coal-based communities experiencing energy transitions. This study estimates local employment, labor income, and tax revenue effects from renewable and low-carbon generation options repurposing coal power plants and meeting their economic impacts at existing coal plant sites in North Carolina. The study bridges gaps in energy transition studies by including site feasibility assessment of advanced reactors for former coal power plant sites, renewable electricity generation, and thermal energy storage. It also considers cost advantages of reusing existing power plant interconnections, IRA discounts, and generation technology economic impacts using IMPLAN. A least-cost quadratic optimization model considers different site-specific electricity generation portfolios to analyze site-based economic impacts and associated technology costs meeting or exceeding site-based coal generation and its economic impacts. This study finds that replacing coal generation costs less than maintaining the current coal fleet, a technology-inclusive portfolio provides the least-cost pathway, and benefits may exceed site-based impacts of existing coal plants. Local tax revenues from advanced reactors and thermal energy storage systems may increase revenues by at least $28 million. Across all repurposing scenarios, replacing existing coal plants with energy storage, renewable, and low-carbon generation leads to net employment growth and tax revenues, indicating further benefits to a rapid and more equitable decarbonization through economic development.

Is pivoting offshore the right policy for achieving decarbonisation in the state of Victoria, Australia's electricity sector?

In 2022 the Victorian Government announced an ambitious offshore wind target of 9 GW by 2040. The aim of the target is to decarbonise Victoria's electricity supply through the replacement of ageing and incumbent brown coal generators. This paper explores potential pathways for Victorian electricity sector decarbonisation and assesses whether this policy is the best for Victorian consumers and industry when assessed against cost, price, and emissions criteria. The policy necessitates subsidies for the investment in offshore wind to be financially viable, as the capacity target of 9 GW exceeds the level of variable renewable energy that can be efficiently integrated into the National Electricity Market without financial support. These subsidies are necessary in offsetting the initial high costs of offshore wind to pursue Victoria's long term decarbonisation goals. This article is the first quantitative study of the policy on the Victorian electricity system and finds that total system costs are higher due to the pivot from onshore to offshore wind.

Influence of coal rock on tight sandstone reservoirs in coal seam roofs: A case study of the lower jurassic in the Taibei sag, Turpan-Hami Basin, China

After shale gas, coalbed methane and gas hydrate, coal measure gas has become an important new unconventional resource, for which exploration to depths of >3000 m are taking place in China. However, owing to unusual geological conditions and as yet inadequate exploration technology the current level of exploration is low. The acidic water medium in coal-bearing strata affects the diagenesis of adjacent tight sandstone reservoirs, thereby influencing reservoir quality. However, the current understanding of the impact mechanism of coal seams on neighboring tight reservoirs is insufficient, constraining the further exploration of coal measure gas. In order to reveal the influence of coal rock on a tight sandstone reservoir in its roof, we study the coal-bearing strata of the Xishanyao Formation in the Taibei Sag of the Turpan-Hami Basin using cast thin sections, physical property tests, XRD analysis, carbon and oxygen isotopes, high-pressure mercury intrusion and low-temperature N2 adsorption. The carbonate cement in the sandstone reservoir of the coal seam roof was formed by the decarboxylation of organic acid. The organic acid, containing CO2 generated by coal rock hydrocarbon generation, has modified the tight sandstone reservoir of the coal seam roof via dissolution. This has improved the physical properties and pore throat structure of the tight sandstone reservoir close to the coal-sandstone interface. The amount of improvement extends to about 2 m into the sandstone. During the upward transport of fluid, the pre-existing carbonate cement dissolves and then precipitates, which causes the CO2 generated by the organic acid decarboxylation to exchange carbon with the carbon isotopes in the pre-existing carbonate cement. Due to the slow upward diffusion rate and limited diffusion distance of the CO2-bearing fluids, the carbonate cement exhibits gradually heavier δ13CPDB values with increasing distance from the coal-sandstone interface.

Research on the mechanism of coal wall fragmentation and dust production characteristics in the perspective of differentiated discrete elements

In order to efficiently and accurately control coal dust pollution in coal mining faces, this study addresses the insufficient research on the dust generation mechanism during cutting. Firstly, a similar experimental platform for simulating coal wall cutting with a drum cutter was used to investigate the changes in coal wall fragmentation and dust generation at drum speeds of 35 r/min, 50 r/min, 65 r/min, and 80 r/min. The experimental results revealed that the degree of coal wall fragmentation and dust generation increased with the increase in rotational speed, leading to a wider range of particle size distribution and an increase in the generation of fine dust particles. A 1:1 scale discrete element simulation of coal wall cutting with a drum cutter was conducted based on the experiments. The results indicated that, under the four rotational speeds, the cracks generated during coal wall fracture were predominantly tensile cracks, accounting for over 76% of the total crack count. The total number of cracks increased from 10,600 to 11,200, the number of free single particles increased from 2555 to 2728, and the fragmentation volume increased from 0.021607 to 0.023024 m3. The range and degree of coal wall fragmentation increased with the increase in drum speed.

Redispatch Model for Real-Time Operation with High Solar-Wind Penetration and Its Adaptation to the Ancillary Services Market

Modern electrical power systems integrate renewable generation, with solar generation being one of the pioneers worldwide. In Latin America, the greatest potential and development of solar generation is found in Chile through the National Electric System. However, its energy matrix faces a crisis of drought and reduction of emissions that limits hydroelectric generation and involves the definitive withdrawal of coal generation. The dispatch of these plants is carried out by the system operator, who uses a simplified mechanism, called “economic merit list” and which does not reflect the real costs of the plants to the damage of the operating and marginal cost of the system. This inefficient dispatch scheme fails to optimize the availability of stored gas and its use over time. Therefore, a real-time redispatch model is proposed that minimizes the operation cost function of the power plants, integrating the variable generation cost as a polynomial function of the net specific fuel consumption, adding gas volume stock restrictions and water reservoirs. In addition, the redispatch model uses an innovative “maximum dispatch power” restriction, which depends on the demand associated with the automatic load disconnection scheme due to low frequency. Finally, by testing real simulation cases, the redispatch model manages to optimize the operation and dispatch costs of power plants, allowing the technical barriers of the market to be broken down with the aim of integrating ancillary services in the short term, using the power reserves in primary (PFC), secondary (SCF), and tertiary (TCF) frequency control.

Real-time high-resolution modelling of grid carbon emissions intensity

Reducing greenhouse gas emissions in the energy industry is broadly acknowledged as important with numerous countries implementing targets to reduce emissions. Understanding the carbon emissions intensity of electricity grids is an important step in this process, and higher spatial and temporal granularity estimates are critical for delivering actionable insights. Existing emissions intensity models are limited in terms of their real-time availability and, in particular, their spatial granularity. Here we outline a method for estimating emissions intensity of large-scale interconnected electricity networks in real-time at substation-level resolution. This is realized by integrating nation-wide high-resolution electricity generation and demand data, regional population data, a detailed model of the electricity grid, and power flow simulation and flow tracing models. Results for Australia's National Electricity Market reveal that most capital city locations have higher emissions intensity than neighbouring regional areas, though the variation within a city can also be substantial. In general, emissions intensity is higher in areas closer to, or directly fed by emissions intensive coal and gas generators. These results have important implications for the design of energy efficiency incentives and demand response strategies, in the rollout of distributed renewable generation, and in carbon accounting.