CO2 Emission Reduction Effect Research Articles

How to Achieve Comprehensive Carbon Emission Reduction in Ports? A Systematic Review

Under the mounting pressure to make changes to become more environmentally friendly and sustainable, port authorities have been exploring effective solutions to reduce CO2 emissions. In this regard, alternative fuels, innovative technology, and optimization strategies are key pathways for ports to transition toward a low-carbon pattern. In this review work, the current development status and characteristics of renewable and clean energy in ports were meticulously analyzed. The CO2 emission reduction effects and limitations of port microgrids, carbon capture, and other technological operations were thoroughly examined. Lastly, the emission reduction optimization strategies ports could adopt under different scenarios were evaluated. The research findings showed that (1) combining the characteristics of the port and quantifying the properties of different renewable energy sources and low-carbon fuels is extremely necessary to select suitable alternative energy sources for port development; (2) technological advancements, multi-party interests, and policy impacts were the primary factors influencing the development of emission reduction technology methods; and (3) the coordinated optimization of multiple objectives in cross-scenarios was the main direction for ports to achieve sustainable development. This study provides theoretical guidance to ports that are transitioning to a greener pattern, as well as pointing out future research directions and development spaces for researchers.

Transfer payments and carbon reduction in China: The effect of the national comprehensive demonstration city of energy saving and emission reduction fiscal policy

To address climate change and achieve high-quality economic development, China began implementing the Comprehensive Demonstration City of Energy Saving and Emission Reduction Fiscal Policy (ESERFP) in 2011. This policy relies on special transfer payments to increase the integration of various energy conservation and emission reduction fiscal policies, thereby accelerating institutional and mechanism innovation, actively promoting economic structure adjustment and development mode transformation, and achieving energy conservation and emission reduction goals in various regions. This study uses a multi-period difference-in-difference (DID) model to estimate the ESERFP's CO2 emission reduction effect and paths. The findings demonstrate the following: (1) The ESERFP has lessened the CO2 emission intensity of the demonstration city and effectively played a role in reducing CO2 emissions. (2) Mechanism analysis demonstrates that the ESERFP has significantly improved the green travel level of residents in pilot cities and can also reduce cities' total energy consumption. Therefore, the ESERFP can effectively suppress CO2 emissions by improving transportation systems and optimizing energy consumption structures. (3) Further analysis shows that the ESERFP can reduce the CO2 emission scale of the demonstration cities and effectively promote the increase of actual per capita gross domestic product in pilot cities, bringing economic dividends and thus achieving a “win-win” situation of environmental protection and economic growth. (4) Heterogeneity analysis demonstrates that the CO2 emission reduction effect is more significant in non-old industrial-based cities, non-resource-based cities, and urban agglomerations. This study not only evaluates the CO2 reduction effect of the demonstration city but also provides reference significance for the improvement of subsequent environmental regulations. In addition, clarifying the implementation effect of the ESERFP can help alleviate ecological and environmental problems in the process of urban economic development in China and achieve the sustainable development goal of green transformation.

An environmental and economic investigation of shipping network configuration considering the maritime emission trading scheme

Decarbonization is currently an urgent issue for the international shipping industry. The maritime Emission Trading Scheme (METS) is an effective measure, while the utilization of the Arctic Northeast Passage (NEP) and carriers' profit-driven reactions may affect its effectiveness. Thus, this paper proposed an optimization model to investigate the carrier's economic viability and the CO2 emission under METS for the SCR/NEP-combined liner shipping service. Various METS scenarios are set based on 1) geographical scope (GS), 2) free emission quota percentage (FEQP), and 3) carbon price (CP). Results show that METS would guarantee a short-term CO2 emission reduction within the GS, but the volume of overall CO2 emission in some scenarios would be even larger. In individual cases, METS positively affects the carrier's economic viability. METS disincentivizes carriers to use the NEP, especially when it is implemented in the Arctic area or with high pricing. For carriers, the main countermeasure to cope with METS is slow steaming in the GS. Some valuable insights for policymakers designing METS: it is not the case that the higher the value of GS/FEQP/CP, the better the overall CO2 emission reduction effect. A moderate GS and CP may be appropriate for balancing carriers' economic benefits and emission reduction efficiency, in whole or in part. FEQP can be set relatively low at the start of METS and raised gradually to motivate the carriers in emission control.

Does Green Finance Influence CO2 to Achieve Carbon Neutrality in China?

The advancement of green finance plays a pivotal role in filling the financing gap of carbon neutrality and promote the low-carbon transformation. However, there are relatively few empirical studies directly analyzing the nexus of green finance and carbon emission intensity, as well as their impact mechanism, nonlinear effect and spatial effect. Therefore, based on the panel data of 30 provinces and cities in China from 2007 to 2019, using System GMM (SYS-GMM), KHB, panel threshold model and spatial Durbin model (SDM), this paper investigates the effect and impact mechanisms of green finance on carbon emission (CO2). The results show that green finance significantly reduces CO2 intensity, which is still valid after a series of robustness tests. Second, the CO2 emission reduction effect of green finance exert asymmetric effects between financially developed and financially underdeveloped regions, industrially developed and industrially underdeveloped regions. Third, green finance mainly affects carbon emission intensity through factors such as FDI, energy consumption scale, energy intensity, green technology innovation, industrial structure upgrading and energy structure. Finally, CO2 emission reduction effect of green finance demonstrates nonlinear characteristics with diminishing marginal effects and spatial effects. Drawing upon these findings, this paper puts forward specific proposals on developing and innovating green finance to promote CO2 emission reduction and realize carbon neutrality.

How can new energy development reduce CO2 emissions: Empirical evidence of inverted U-shaped relationship in China.

This article is based on the statistical yearbook data of 30 provinces, municipalities and autonomous regions in China (excluding Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan, and Tibet Autonomous Region) from 2000 to 2017, a total of 18 years of statistical yearbook data was used to conduct in-depth research on the reduction of CO2 emissions from the development of new energy in the region. First, it is proposed that the regional new energy development has a significant negative effect on CO2 emissions. Meanwhile, this impact has a significant time lag effect, and the development of new energy cannot be quickly and effectively applied in the short term to replace traditional fossil energy in the dynamic model. Therefore, there is a significant positive impact in the short term, but the significant negative effect of new energy development on CO2 emission can be shown in the long run. Secondly, the new energy development has a significant non-linear impact on CO2 emissions, showing an inverted U-shaped relationship, which confirms the existence of the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) of CO2 emissions based on new energy development. Finally, in order to alleviate the continuous impact of national economic development on CO2 emissions, the DID model is used to prove that the level of technological innovation has a significant moderating effect on the CO2 emission reduction effect of new energy development, which confirms theoretically the importance of technological innovation in accelerating new energy substitution and improving energy efficiency.

Evaluation of CO2 and SO2 synergistic emission reduction: The case of China

The industrial sector has significantly contributed to global climate change and urban air pollution while driving economic development. This paper takes the synergistic CO2 and SO2 emission reduction in China's industrial sector as an entry point quantifies the synergistic CO2 and SO2 emission reduction effect using the Kaya extension model and analyzes the synergistic emission reduction expansion mechanism in depth. It is found that the synergistic effect of CO2 and SO2 in the industrial sector is prevalent in most provinces in China. Every 10,000 tons of CO2 emission reduction leads to 1600 tons of SO2 emission reduction. Regional heterogeneity also clarifies that there are differences in synergistic emission reduction among different provinces, with most regions having a significant positive effect of synergistic emission reduction, while a small number of regions have an inverse effect, and direct SO2 reduction measures should be considered separately. The interaction effect analysis found that energy efficiency improvement in the industrial sector is the critical path to synergistic effect enhancement. At the same time, R&D expenditure and fixed asset investment have a weak effect on synergistic emission reduction. The interaction of the three factors can synergize the emission reduction effect by more than twice. The study's findings can be used as a reference for China's industrial sector to achieve the goal of reducing pollution and carbon emissions and for the practice of regional synergistic emission reduction, as well as for the formulation of international synergistic emission reduction policies.

Study on the Emission Reduction Effect of Green Technology Innovation

Abstract Green technology innovation is one of the important ways to achieve carbon emission reduction targets. Based on the STIRPAT (Stochastic Impacts by Regression on Population, Affluence and Technology) model and the fixed-effects model, we measured CO2 emissions by region using regional panel data from 2005 to 2021 at provincial level in China and explored the CO2 emission reduction effect. Based on this, we analyzed heterogeneity of green technology innovation and the mechanism of the effect. The results show that green technology innovation has a significant effect on carbon emission reduction, achieving a 5% reduction. Second the CO2 emission reduction effect of green technology innovation varies according to differences in economic, scientific and technological human resources, and environmental management inputs. It shows that green technology innovation has a significant CO2 emission reduction effect in economically developed regions, regions with sufficient scientific and technological human resources, and regions with high environmental management inputs. Third, green technology innovation mainly achieves CO2 emission reduction by improving the level of cleanliness. JEL classification numbers: P28, O14, O15, O18. Keywords: Green technology, Carbon emissions, STIRPAT model, Means to reduce emissions.

The contribution of cleaner production in the material industry to reducing embodied energy and emissions in China's building sector

Quantifying embodied energy and emissions (EEEs) can help clarify the consumption-based responsibilities of the building sector. Material consumption accounts for over 80% of the total EEEs, which is substantially affected by cleaner production measures in the material industry. Previous studies have not accurately calculated the EEEs by overlooking or oversimplifying these effects. This study aims to address this issue by making predictions about the building sector of Mainland China, which includes the floor areas of new buildings and the related material consumption between 2020 and 2035. In total, 29 cleaner production measures for steel, cement, brick, glass, and timber industries are collected. The embodied energy and CO2, SO2, NOx, and PM emissions reduction effects of the adopted measures are quantified and analysed using conservation supply curve and uncertainty analysis approaches. The results show the EEEs from material consumption will decrease by 45.9–60.7% from 2020 to 2035, to which the cleaner production measures contribute about half. The EEEs have significant spatial disparity. For example, Guangdong Province takes 2% of China's land area, but undertakes 7–9% of the domestic EEEs. The uneven distributions may cause heavy energy and environmental pressures in some provinces. The specific costs of the EEEs reductions differ by 2–4 orders of magnitude, while 30.4–34.5% and 65.5–67.8% of the embodied energy and CO2 emission reduction effects are cost-effective. This study reveals the vital role of cleaner production in EEEs reductions and provides critical insights into the green development of the building sector.

Carbon emission reduction potential assessment in food transportation by urban agriculture: A case study of main urban area of Nanjing, China.

As an emerging urban green infrastructure and continuous productive urban landscape, urban agriculture can increase the resilience of urban food systems and reduce carbon emission in food transportation. However, there are few studies in China on the potential of urban agriculture and its role in carbon emission reduction. With semantic segmentation and spatial analysis method to identify urban agricultural potential spaces on the ground and rooftops based on satellite images and Lidar point cloud data in the main urban area of Nanjing, we estimated their potential in vegetable production and the CO2 emission reduction effect in food transportation. The results showed that there were 2904.39 hm2 of ground and 2976.96 hm2 of rooftops in the study area with the potential to be used for urban agriculture. Under a scenario with 80% potential space utilization, it could produce approximately 225000 t of vegetables per year, which equated to 43.6% of annual vegetable consumption in the study area. Meanwhile, it would reduce CO2 emission in long distance food transportation by 63700 t per year.

Waste heat recovery and cascade utilization of CO2 chemical absorption system based on organic amine method in heating season

In this paper, we proposed a waste heat recovery route of CO2 chemical absorption systems, which can realize waste heat recovery and cascade utilization in heating season. Simulation methods were used to study carbon capture systems and absorption heat pump, experimental methods were used to study the contact heat transfer characteristics of packed tower, and three organic amine solutions were involved: MEA (2-Aminoethanol), MEA& MDEA (N-Methyldiethanolamine) and AMP (2-Amino-2-methyl-1-propanol). The outlet gas temperature of carbon capture system is 47.7 °C∼58.8 °C, the temperature of lean solution is 73.3 °C∼95.0 °C, the absorption heat pump can increase the return water from 40 °C to 85 °C∼97 °C, the heat transfer end difference between flue gas and water in packed tower can be less than 1.0 °C. The system can achieve energy conservation and CO2 emission reduction effect, over 80% of the solution waste heat were recovered, the two-stage gas waste heat recovery process can improve boiler efficiency by over 19%.

Impact of Financial Inclusion, Globalization, Renewable Energy, ICT, and Economic Growth on CO2 Emission in OBOR Countries

This study examines the short-term and long-term effects of various important determinants such as financial inclusion (FI), information and communication technology (ICT), renewable energy (RE), globalization (GOB), and economic growth (EG) on CO2 emissions in the top 10 emitter countries in the OBOR region based on the collected data for the years 2004 to 2019. This study employed the CS-ARDL technique. Findings demonstrate a strong relationship between FI, ICT, and CO2 emissions in both the long-term and short-term. Renewable sources of energy have been found to have a CO2 emission reduction effect, both in the long and short term. In the long run, there is a negative connection between globalization and CO2 emissions; however, in the short run, this connection is inconsequential, while economic growth (EG) has a positive association with CO2 emission. The development of ICT infrastructure carries the potential to directly mitigate the detrimental effects of CO2 emissions while also playing an important role in raising people’s environmental consciousness. OBOR countries should welcome and encourage clean and green foreign investment that provides technical skills, environmental technology development, and carbon-free processes.

Numerical simulation of lean premixed combustion characteristics and emissions of natural gas-ammonia dual-fuel marine engine with the pre-chamber ignition system

As an efficient hydrogen carrier, ammonia (NH3) has great potential to realize the target of carbon neutralization. In this paper, a natural gas-ammonia dual-fuel engine model has been established to evaluate the feasibility of ammonia application in a high-pressure medium-speed four-stroke natural gas marine engine. In order to achieve the efficient and clean combustion of ammonia, a method combining the pre-chamber ignition system with lean-burn combustion technology was proposed. In addition, a CH4/NH3 combustion mechanism with reasonable accuracy was developed to simulate the combustion process of the engine. Moreover, the effect of using various ammonia concentration in the fuel on jet flame formation, thermal efficiency, unburned ammonia, and NOx and N2O emissions were compared. The results showed that the pyrolysis of ammonia mixtures in the pre-combustion chamber promoted the formation of jet flame, which had a “chain effect” on the turbulent kinetic energy in the main combustion chamber and further enhanced the flame propagation in lean conditions. In addition, NOx emission showed a decreasing function of the split ratio of ammonia, which was caused by the NO reduction by unburned NH3. However, the low-temperature generation characteristics of N2O emissions led to the opposite trend. Furthermore, the application of ammonia increased N2O emissions by 0.18–0.49 g/kWh, which is about 0.06%–0.1% of nitrogen in ammonia fuel, resulting in a partial offset of CO2 emission reduction effect.

Investigation on low energy-consumed embedded selective catalytic reduction technology for pelletizing flue gas and the CO2 emission reduction assessment.

Based on the unique technique property of grate-kiln pellet production process and its demand of ultra-low emission of NOx, a low energy-consumed embedded selective catalytic reduction (SCR) denitration technology was proposed. The temperature of the NOx-containing tributary flue gas was 350-500 °C, which basically accorded with the temperature range of SCR by V2O5-based catalyst. Considering thepotential inhibition effect of high SO2 concentration (8000-10000 mg/m3) and metal-containing dust in the pelletizing flue gas, the catalyst compositions were optimized to V2O5 (0.5%) and WO3 (5%), giving NO conversion over 90% with low yield of N2O by-product. Compared with the low-medium temperature SCR technology, it was no longer necessary to reheat the flue gas, showinga remarkable CO2 emission reduction effect. The CO2 emission reduction ratios were 94% and 66% contributed by the decrease of fuel and electricity consumption for the embedded SCR technology, respectively. The operating cost was also greatly reduced from 11.4 CNY/t-pellet to 3.1 CNY/t-pellet (Chinese Yuan).

Research on systematic analysis and optimization method for chillers based on model predictive control: A case study

Chillers are key components of heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems and consume large amounts of energy in commercial buildings. This study conducted field tests on the operation performance of chillers in large-scale commercial buildings and analyzed the typical problems influencing their energy efficiency. Subsequently, based on the field test results, a systematic optimization method for chillers was proposed based on external factors, internal factors, and synergy control between them. For external factors, the cooling load prediction model comprising a linear model based on the time series was constructed using historical operation data; the proposed model could be applied to guide the control of chillers to match the building cooling demand accurately with high energy efficiency. For internal factors, the energy performance model of the chiller was constructed using historical operation data, and the operation characteristics of constant-speed and variable-speed centrifugal chillers were compared and summarized. Then, using the cooling load prediction model and energy performance model of the chillers, a new control strategy was proposed to improve the energy performance under different operating conditions throughout the year. Compared with previous operation modes in 2018 and 2019, the energy saving rates reached 19.21% and 5.22%, respectively, achieving considerable energy-saving and CO2 emission reduction effects.

A Simulation Study on the Impact of the Digital Economy on CO2 Emission Based on the System Dynamics Model

The digital economy plays an important role in achieving the strategic goal of “carbon peaking and carbon neutrality” in China. In this study, we construct a system dynamics (SD) model to comprehensively analyze the impact of the digital economy on CO2 emission. First, we simulate and forecast the future baseline of the digital economy, energy consumption, and CO2 emission in China from 2005 to 2040. Second, we study the impact of the digital economy on CO2 emission based on scenario analysis of different digital economy growth rates. Finally, we study the influencing factors of CO2 emission reduction effect of the digital economy. The results indicate the following: (1) CO2 emission will peak in 2034. From 2020 to 2025, the cumulative reduction in energy consumption intensity will be 15.75% and the cumulative reduction in CO2 emission intensity will be 20.9%. Both indicators will reach the national goals during the 14th Five-Year Plan period. However, it will require more effort to realize the goal of the share of non-fossil energy. (2) There is an inverted U-shaped relationship between the digital economy and CO2 emission. The digital economy aggravates CO2 emission mainly by promoting energy consumption, but it reduces CO2 emission by promoting the upgrading of the energy consumption structure and reducing the energy consumption intensity. (3) The R&D investment intensity and the environment investment intensity can strengthen the CO2 emission reduction effect of the digital economy. The results will be crucial for carbon reduction and provide policymakers with suggestions for sustainability.

CO2 emission reduction effect of photovoltaic industry through 2060 in China

In the coming four-decade, China will face serious challenge while shifting to carbon neutral. Photovoltaic (PV) power, as one of the most promising clean energies, is seen as an important focus for decarbonization of the power sector in China. The novelty of this study is to use life cycle assessment (LCA) methods to analyze the CO2 emission reduction of the PV generation industry before 2060 base on the amount of energy and resources consumed and PV generation's CO2 reduction benefits during the whole industrial chain. This paper aims to examine CO2 emission reduction contribution, we firstly compute the historical emissions and predict future PV waste and new power capacity from 2010 to 2060. Then, considering the change of industrial structure and technological evolution, the yearly life cycle CO2 emission from producing stage to recycling stage is calculated. The key results show that the unit CO2 emission of PV system producing will reduce 88.07% from 2010 to 2060. PV generation industry's total CO2 emission has reached its neutrality between 2014 and 2015, and will reduce 33.03 Giga tons CO2-eq till 2060. The findings can offer relevant insights to low-carbon development of China's PV industry and will provide suggestions for policy-making.

Energy, exergy, exergoeconomic and enviroeconomic (4E) assessment on a liquid desiccant air-conditioning system using green deep eutectic solvent of ethaline

Despite the recognition of its energy-saving potential, the promotion of liquid desiccant air-conditioning system is limited by the drawbacks of existing desiccants in long-term or large-scale use. Deep eutectic solvent with good bio- and eco- friendliness has not yet been tested for systematic study in air-conditioning system. In this paper, a deep eutectic solvent, ethaline, is utilized in a heat pump driven liquid desiccant air-conditioning system, whose energy, exergy, exergoeconomic and enviroeconomic performances are studied. Under basic condition of ambient temperature of 35 ℃ and relative humidity of 80%, its systematic coefficient of performance reaches 1.406 with exergy efficiency of 32.65%. Meanwhile, 52.36% CO2 emission can be reduced compared with conventional condensation dehumidification air-conditioning system. The payback period of such system at basic condition with 20 kW cooling load is 14.4 years, and it can be significantly reduced in applications with larger cooling load. Parametric analyses for different requirements and environments are conducted as well. The energy and environmental superiority of ethaline is more significant under more latent loads, higher supply air flow rate and lower fresh air ratio. Under ambient temperature ranging from 28 ℃ to 40 ℃, the effect of CO2 emission reduction for ethaline reaches to extents of more than 38%. The advantages of ethaline are further illustrated in comparison with other potential desiccant candidates, in aspects of toxicity, price and corrosiveness. The potential performance improvement approach for ethaline used as liquid desiccant is also proposed and discussed. The results in this paper demonstrate the promising prospect of ethaline quantitatively, and provide enlightening for exploration of new liquid desiccant. In pace with the broadening application of air-conditioning system, liquid desiccant air-conditioning system using such green desiccants can be promoted, which brings out great prospects in energy saving and CO2 emission reduction.

Economic feasibility and policy incentive analysis of Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) in coal-fired power plants based on system dynamics.

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) is an important potential technical way for coal power plants to achieve near-zero carbon emissions with the current energy structure in China being dominated by coal. However, CCUS is still at the early demonstration stage, and there are many uncertainties in the business model and policy incentives that the traditional method can no longer handle. At the same time, few studies have analyzed these issues. Taking coal-fired power plants as the research object, we adopt the system dynamics method (SD) to compare the economic feasibility, stability, and CO2 emission reduction effect of the CCUS in the vertical integration model and the CCUS operator model. Furthermore, this paper also studies the effect of different incentive policies on CCUS. Results show the following: (1) Both models are economically viable. From the stability perspective, the CCUS operator model is superior to the vertical integration model. (2) In terms of the effect of individual policies, the government's preference for subsidies to the coal-fired power plant can significantly reduce CO2 emissions. Increasing the additional government subsidy and carbon tax can accelerate the CCUS system into a relatively stable state, but beyond a certain range, the marginal CO2 capture rate, marginal CO2 emission reduction rate, and marginal profit rate of each department will be significantly reduced. The storage enterprise highly depends on the government subsidy. Low government subsidy allocation, low additional government subsidy, and a low carbon tax will lead to continuous negative profits for the storage enterprise, making the CCUS system unsustainable. (3) The impact of combination policies on CCUS is not simply the sum of the effects of individual policies. Each policy has a counteracting or reinforcing effect on the other.

The Fuel Cycle Carbon Reduction Effects of New Energy Vehicles: Empirical Evidence Based on Regional Data in China

With ever-growing energy demands and increasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, carbon emission reduction has attracted worldwide attention. This article establishes a bottom-up method using regional data from 2010 to 2020 to quantify the carbon reduction effects of new energy vehicles (NEVs) in the fuel cycle. From this, a generalized Bass model with outstanding performance was created (with a goodness-of-fit of 99.7%) to forecast CO2 emission reduction potential in 2030 and 2050. The results are as follows: (1) there are regional differences in the fuel cycle carbon reduction effects of NEVs in all six regions, with the Central China power grid having the strongest ability to reduce emissions, while the Northeast and Northwest grids have relatively low carbon reduction effects. (2) Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have the strongest CO2 emission reduction effect, while fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) have the most potential. (3) Under the baseline scenario, the carbon reduction of NEVs will be 2992 million tons in 2030 and reach 11,559 million tons in 2050, which is far from carbon neutrality. Further, policy implications, including the tailoring of policies to specific regions and upgrading the energy mix, are proposed to reduce further carbon emissions.

CO2 emission and construction cost reduction effect in cases of recycled aggregate utilized for nonstructural building materials in South Korea

The construction industry is a major consumer of natural resources and a major waste generator. The use of recycled aggregate is important for the environmental sustainability of the construction industry because it can not only reduce the need for waste landfills, but can also reduce the depletion of natural aggregates. Although there are many studies on the environmental effects of recycled aggregate, there are few studies on its practical effects as applied to real buildings. Recycled aggregates have not been widely used owing to a lack of user trust. Generally RCA has been commonly used in nonstructural materials (such as pavements or filling materials) owing to its inherent properties. Due to inferior characteristics of RCA, there is a limit to being widely used as a structural material immediately. Therefore, to expand the use of recycled aggregate, it is necessary to study the economic and environmental benefits from using recycled aggregate as a nonstructural material for buildings. In this study, the cost and potential embodied CO 2 (ECO 2 ) emission benefits were analyzed by using recycled aggregates as the nonstructural materials in four types of buildings, including apartments with 31 different characteristics. When applied RCA to the apartments, the cost savings are -$122,057 which is 10% reduction compared to original material. And the ECO 2 emissions cost savings amount to -$2,958 which is 5% reduction compared to original material; these represent the most effective case and reflect a −0.158% change in the total construction cost.