Clostridium Difficile-associated Diarrhea In Patients Research Articles

Diarrhea in tube-fed hospitalized patients: Feeding formula is not the most common cause.

Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) and enteral nutrition (EN)-associated diarrhea are the most common recognized etiologies of nosocomial diarrhea. However, in clinical practice, the data regarding how each etiology contributes to the diarrheal episodes are limited. We identify the causes and factors associated with post-feeding diarrhea. Using the data of patients enrolled in "Effect of Psyllium Fiber Supplementation on Diarrhea Incidence in Enteral Tube-Fed Patients: A Prospective, Randomized, and Controlled Trial", the randomized controlled trial showed no difference in diarrheal incidences between fiber-added and fiber-free formulas. Hence, we analyzed the data of all enrolled patients. The causes of diarrhea were classified according to pre-specified definitions. The factors associated with diarrhea were analyzed using logistic regression. Diarrhea was found in 37.3% (n=31/83). The most common cause was medication associated (61.3%). CDAD and EN-associated diarrhea were found in only 9.7% and 6.5%, respectively. Patients with baseline albumin <3g/dL and underlying cerebrovascular disease were more likely to develop diarrhea (adjusted odds ratio 5.70, 95% confidence interval 1.79-20.51, and adjusted odds ratio 10.83, 95% confidence interval 2.96-48.57, respectively). Compared with those without diarrhea, the length of hospital stay in CDAD patients was significantly longer (+23.1days, P=0.02), a trend of longer hospital stay in patients with diarrhea from other causes was observed (+3.2days, P=0.096). Our study found that the most common cause of post-feeding diarrhea is medication associated. Review and cessation of possible drugs should be undertaken before EN modification. CDAD accounts for <10% of diarrhea causes, but it impacts the clinical outcome and should be identified and treated properly.

Probiotic use as prophylaxis for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a community hospital

This study was a retrospective chart review from January 1, 2015 through June 30, 2017, comparing the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) in patients taking select broad spectrum antibiotics with probiotics versus without probiotics. The purpose was to determine if probiotic use was associated with a reduction in the incidence of CDAD. A total of 5,574 hospital encounters were reviewed, showing a 0.96% incidence of CDAD in patients receiving a probiotic compared to a 2.19% incidence of CDAD in patients with no probiotic (risk ratio = 0.442; P = .00743). These findings show probiotic use was associated with a statistically significant lower incidence of positive C. difficile test results compared to no probiotic use.

Are probiotics effective in preventing antibiotic and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in patients on antibiotics?

Springer, Sydney PharmD, BCPS; Payette, Nicole PharmD, BCPS; Wilson, Stephen A. MD, MPH, FAAFP Author Information

Nagging Presence of Clostridium difficile Associated Diarrhoea in North India.

Clostridium Difficile Associated Diarrhoea (CDAD) is a significant cause of morbidity in hospitalised patients worldwide. The data on clinical epidemiology of this disease in Indian subcontinent is scarce. To evaluate the risk factors and clinical course of patients with CDAD. A cross-sectional study was planned at our tertiary care centre, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, whereby, all patients who had nosocomial diarrhea between 2010 and 2014 were included in the study. Their clinical and laboratory profile were recorded using structured questionnaire and their stool samples were subjected to ELISA for detection of toxins A and B (Premier toxins A and B). Those patients who had toxins A and B in their stool samples were diagnosed as CDAD. The clinical and laboratory profile of CDAD patients were further analysed. A total of 791 patients with nosocomial diarrhea were included in this study. CDAD was diagnosed in a total of 48(6%) patients. The year wise breakdown of the positive patients is as follows: 7/135 (5.2%), 4/156 (2.6%), 5/141 (3.5%), 9/193 (4.7%) and 23/166 (13.8%), respectively. A total of 16/48 (33.3%) of CDAD cases belonged to the age group of 51-60 years. Malignancy (n=15, 31.25%) was the most common underlying pathological condition. All the patients had a history of antibiotic intake. Most common antibiotic used in the patients of CDAD was third generation cephalosporins (n=27, 56.25%). The use of clindamycin, carbapenems and colistin increased in the year 2014. Mean duration of hospital stay was 9.8 days. Diarrhoea was associated with fever in 50% of the patients while abdominal pain was seen in 39.6% of the patients. The control of Clostridium difficile infection suffers from the rampant use of higher antibiotics. There is a need for proper implementation of antimicrobial stewardship programmes and better hospital infection control to stop the transmission of this nagging bug.

Clinical Outcomes of Acid Suppressive Therapy Use in Hematology/Oncology Patients at an Academic Medical Center.

Acid suppressive therapy (AST)-namely, proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) and histamine-2 receptor antagonists (H2RAs)-is routinely prescribed to hospitalized patients for stress ulcer prophylaxis (SUP). To identify the incidence of and indications for AST use in the hematology/oncology population as well as to identify the occurrence of the following PPI-associated adverse events: pneumonia and Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD). A retrospective chart review was conducted on adult hematology/oncology patients admitted to any oncology service for ≥48 hours from October 1, 2014, to December 31, 2014. Of the 298 patients who met the inclusion criteria, 73% (n = 218) received an AST during admission. The most common indication for an AST was SUP (63%). The incidence of hospital-acquired pneumonia (HAP) was 10%, 0%, and 4% in patients who received a PPI, H2RA, and no AST, respectively (14/142 vs 0/70 vs 3/80; odds ratio [OR] for PPI vs no AST = 2.68; 95% CI = 0.75-9.63). The incidence of CDAD was 3%, 1.3%, and 1.2% in patients who received a PPI, H2RA, and no AST, respectively (4/142 vs 1/70 vs 1/80; OR for PPI vs H2RA = 1.92; 95% CI = 0.21-17.47). This is the first study to describe the incidence of and indications for AST use in the hospitalized hematology/oncology population. There was a high occurrence of AST use, particularly PPIs, in these patients at our institution. Additionally, there was a trend toward an increased risk of HAP and CDAD in patients who received AST during admission.

Probiotics are effective at preventing Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

IntroductionClostridium difficile infection (CDI) is the leading cause of antibiotic-associated diarrhea. CDI has increased in incidence and severity over the past decade, and is a growing worldwide health problem associated with substantial health care costs and significant morbidity and mortality. This meta-analysis examines the impact of probiotics on the incidence of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) among children and adults, in both hospital and outpatient settings.MethodsA comprehensive literature search of all published randomized control trials (RCTs) assessing the use of probiotics in the prevention of CDAD in patients receiving antibiotic therapy was conducted, and the incidence of CDAD was analyzed.ResultsTwenty-six RCTs involving 7,957 patients were analyzed. Probiotic use significantly reduced the risk of developing CDAD by 60.5% (relative risk [RR] =0.395; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.294–0.531; P<0.001). Probiotics proved beneficial in both adults and children (59.5% and 65.9% reduction), especially among hospitalized patients. Lactobacillus, Saccharomyces, and a mixture of probiotics were all beneficial in reducing the risk of developing CDAD (63.7%, 58.5%, and 58.2% reduction).ConclusionProbiotic supplementation is associated with a significant reduction in the risk of developing CDAD in patients receiving antibiotics. Additional studies are required to determine the optimal dose and strain of probiotic.

Clinical characteristics of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea among patients in a tertiary care center in China.

Objective:This study investigated the incidence, risk factors, and clinical characteristics of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) in Chinese patients.Methods:Fecal specimens of patients with antibiotic-associated diarrhea (AAD) were collected to test C. difficile toxin A and B using enzyme-linked fluorescent assay to identify CDAD. By adopting a nested case-control design, the matched people (ratio 1:3) without AAD were included as controls.Results:Out of 56,172 inpatients, 39,882 (71.0%) used antibiotics, 470 suffered from AAD, and 93 were diagnosed with CDAD. The incidence of nosocomial CDAD was 166 per 100,000. The proportion of CDAD in AAD was 19.8%. CDAD patients presented with more severe clinical manifestations and exhibited more concurrent illness. Logistic regression analysis showed the risk factors of CDAD: advanced age, nasogastric tube-feeding, high APACHE II scores, high level of serum C-reaction protein, low level of serum albumin, severe underlining disease or comorbidity, and number of antibiotic intake. Twenty-nine patients (31.2%) were cured with vancomycin, 54 (58.1%) were cured after dual therapy of vancomycin plus metronidazole, 7 (7.5%) died of underlying diseases aggravated with CDAD, and 3 (3.2%) were transferred to other hospitals for personal reasons.Conclusion:The incidence of nosocomial CDAD in China was high. Some risk factors could predispose CDAD.

Economic burden of Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea: a cost-of-illness study from a German tertiary care hospital.

Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea (CDAD) is the most common cause of health-care-associated infectious diarrhoea. In the context of the German health-care system, direct and indirect costs of an initial episode of CDAD and of CDAD recurrence are currently unknown. We defined CDAD as presence of diarrhoea (≥3 unformed stools/day) in association with detection of Clostridium difficile toxin in an unformed faecal sample. Patients treated with metronidazole (PO or IV) and/or vancomycin (PO) were included. Comprehensive data of patients were retrospectively documented into a database using the technology of the Cologne Cohort of Neutropenic Patients (CoCoNut). Patients with CDAD were matched to control patients in a 1:1 ratio. Analysis was split in three groups: incidence group (CDAD patients without recurrence), recurrence group (CDAD patients with ≥1 recurrence) and control group (matched non-CDAD patients). Between 02/2010 and 12/2011, 150 patients with CDAD (114 patients in the incidence and 36 (24 %) in the recurrence group) and 150 controls were analysed. Mean length of stay was: 32 (95 %CI: 30-37), 94 (95 %CI: 76-112) and 24 days (95 %CI: 22-27; P = <0.001), resulting in mean overall direct treatment costs per patient of €18,460 (95 %CI: €14,660-€22,270), €73,900 (95 %CI: €50,340-€97,460) and €14,530 (95 %CI: €11,730-€17,330; P = <0.001). In the incidence and recurrence group, the mean cumulative number of antibiotic CDAD treatment days was 11 (95 %CI: 10-12) and 36 (95 %CI: 27-45; P = <0.001). Especially CDAD recurrence was associated with excessive costs, which were mostly attributable to a significantly longer overall length of stay. Innovative treatment strategies are warranted to reduce treatment costs and prevent recurrence of CDAD.

The Risks of Incident and Recurrent Clostridium difficile-Associated Diarrhea in Chronic Kidney Disease and End-Stage Kidney Disease Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

The objective of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to assess the risks of incident and recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) requiring dialysis. A literature search was performed from inception to February 2015. Studies that reported relative risks, odds ratios, or hazard ratios comparing the risks of C. difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with CKD or ESRD versus those without CKD or ESRD were included. Pooled risk ratios (RRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using a random-effect, generic inverse variance method. Twenty studies (nine case-control, seven cohort, and four cross-sectional studies with 162,218,041 patients) were included in the meta-analysis. Pooled RRs of C. difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with CKD and ESRD were 1.95 (95% CI 1.81-2.10) and 2.63 (95% CI 2.04-3.38), respectively. When meta-analysis was limited only to cohort and case-control studies with confounder-adjusted analysis, the pooled RRs of C. difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with CKD and ESRD were 1.89 (95% CI 1.75-2.05) and 2.50 (95% CI 1.49-4.17), respectively. The pooled RR of recurrent C. difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with CKD was 2.61 (95% CI 1.53-4.44). Data on the risk of recurrent C. difficile-associated diarrhea were limited. This meta-analysis demonstrates significantly increased risks of incident and recurrent C. difficile-associated diarrhea in patients with CKD. Furthermore, the magnitude of increased risk of C. difficile-associated diarrhea in ESRD patients is even higher.

Presumably hospital-transmitted Clostridium difficile infections based on epidemiological linkage

Given the traditionally low CDAD (Clostridium difficile associated diarrhoea) prevalence in Switzerland, CDAD patients are not routinely contact-isolated in our institution. In light of the globally changing C. difficile epidemiology, we sought to determine our institutional CDAD rate and to detect possible hospital transmission by means of epidemiological linkage. We included every CDAD patient hospitalised in our institution, a tertiary-care hospital in eastern Switzerland, in 2009/2010. Patients with healthcare facility associated (HCFA) CDAD were grouped into cases with and without exposure to an infectious CDAD patient. Exposure was defined as sharing the room/ward with an infectious patient before symptom onset, either at the same time or within 30 days after discharge of the infectious patient. Molecular strain typing was not performed. We registered 141 CDAD episodes. Among them 108 were HCFA (associated with our institution), corresponding to an incidence of 2.3/10,000 patient days. Fifty-six percent (60/108) were exposed to an infectious CDAD patient, suggesting hospital transmission. The number of patients without exposure remained relatively stable, whereas presumably transmitted cases - often occurring within spatiotemporal clusters - showed high variability over time. Presumably transmitted cases were significantly older (p = 0.032) and more likely to have a Charlson score >1 (p = 0.001). In our setting, 56% of healthcare associated CDAD cases have been exposed to an infectious CDAD patient. In view of the clustering of these presumed hospital transmissions, we consider an intensification of our current infection control measures, mainly on wards with elderly and comorbid patients which are particularly prone to C. difficile transmission.

The impact of pseudomembrane formation on the outcome of Clostridium difficile-associated disease

Although pseudomembranes are the hallmark manifestation of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD), there are scant data specifically addressing their impact on the clinical outcome. We investigated whether the formation of pseudomembranes predicts a worse CDAD outcome. CDAD patients hospitalized during 2010 underwent sigmoidoscopy and were followed prospectively. In addition, all hospitalized CDAD patients in the period 01/2000-12/2009 who underwent lower endoscopy were retrospectively identified and their charts reviewed. Patients with detectable pseudomembranes on endoscopy were compared to those in whom pseudomembranes were absent. Thirty-day mortality and a composite outcome comprised of mortality within 30 days of diagnosis, admission to the intensive care unit (ICU), colectomy, peritonitis, hemodynamic instability, or respiratory insufficiency were addressed. Additional clinical outcomes used for comparison between the two groups were 60-day mortality, duration of hospitalization, and the failure of metronidazole and vancomycin. A total of 117 CDAD patients (mean age 62.9 ± 19 years) who underwent lower endoscopy were included; 46 with pseudomembranes and 71 without. Seven out of the 46 patients with pseudomembranes died within 30 days compared to 9/71 in the non-pseudomembrane group [odds ratio (OR) 1.2, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.4-3.6, P = 0.8]. Similarly, there was no correlation between the occurrence of pseudomembranes and the rate of the composite adverse outcome (P = 0.6). In contrast, acute renal insufficiency (OR 15, 95% CI 3.2-72, P < 0.001) and hypoalbuminemia (OR 5.7, 95% CI 1.8-18, P = 0.002) were both independently predictive of a severe clinical outcome. Our findings suggest that the presence of pseudomembranes is not associated with an adverse outcome in CDAD patients.

Clostridium difficile as a cause of acute diarrhea: a prospective study in a tertiary care center

Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) is an increasing problem. Recent reports suggest presence of community acquired CDAD (CA CDAD). Studies in India have shown varied results. The following are the aims of this study: (a) the prevalence of CDAD and CA CDAD in patients with acute diarrhea; (b) the incremental yield of second stool sample for the diagnosis of C. difficile infection (CDI); and (c) the risk factors for CDI. Patients with acute diarrhea (<4 weeks) between April 2009 and December 2010 had two stool sample tested for C. difficile toxin (CDT) by enzyme-linked immunofluorescent assay. Demographic, clinical data, risk factors, clinical course, complications, treatment, and response were noted. Of 150 patients (mean age, 47.3 years; 76 males), 12 (8 %) had their first stool sample positive for CDT. Two patients (1.3 %) had community acquired CDI. The study group was compared with 138 patients ("control group", stool samples negative for CDT). Compared to the controls, the study group were more likely to have had intensive care unit (ICU) stay (p = 0.018) and tube feeding (p = 0.035). Eleven patients were treated with metronidazole. One patient did not respond to metronidazole and was treated with vancomycin. No patient developed complications of CDAD. The prevalence of CDAD in our population was 8 % and of CA CDAD was 1.3 %. There was no advantage of testing two samples. ICU stay and tube feeding were major risk factors for the CDAD. Metronidazole was an effective first-line therapy.

Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in dialysis patients

BackgroundDialysis patients have impaired host defense mechanisms and frequently require antibiotics for various infective complications. In this study, we investigated whether dialysis patients have greater risk for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD). MethodsDuring the 4-year study period (2004–2008), 85 patients with CDAD were identified based on a retrospective review of C difficile toxin assay or histology records. Nosocomial diarrheal patients without CDAD were considered as controls (n=403). We assessed the association between renal function and the prevalence and clinical outcomes of CDAD. ResultsThere was a significant difference in the prevalence rate of chronic kidney disease (CKD) between CDAD and non-CDAD patients (P<0.001). Sixteen patients (18.8%) of the CDAD group were treated with dialysis, whereas 21 patients (5.2%) of the non-CDAD group were treated with dialysis. There was a significant association between renal function and CDAD in patients on dialysis [odds ratio (OR)=4.44, 95% confidence interval (CI) 2.19–8.99, P<0.001], but not in patients with CKD stage 3–5 (OR=1.10, 95% CI 0.63–1.92, P=0.73). In multivariate analysis, CKD stage 5D was an independent risk factor for the development of CDAD (OR=13.36, 95% CI 2.94–60.67, P=0.001). ConclusionOur data indicate that dialysis patients might be at a greater risk of developing CDAD, which suggests that particular attention should be provided to CDAD when antibiotic treatment is administered to dialysis patients.

Risk factors of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in children

To explore the risk factors of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) in children. From December 2010 to March 2011, the hospitalized diarrheal patients under 18 years old at Beijing Children's Hospital were tested for Clostridium difficile. The CDAD(+) patients were selected and their fecal specimens were PCR-positive for tcdA and (or) tcdB genes. And the patients with healthcare facility-associated-CDAD (HCFA-CDAD) were selected from the group of CDAD(+). The CDAD patients were selected and their fecal specimens were PCR-negative for tcdA and (or) tcdB genes. And the 1:3 matched controls per case were selected from those hospitalized patients without diarrhea at the same department with similar diseases during the same period. The potential predictors of CDAD included age, gender, co-morbidities, prior hospitalization, the administration of C. difficile-active antibiotics during prior 24 hours, recent (< 1 month) exposure to antibiotics or acid-blocking medications or nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), C-reactive protein (CRP) and white blood cell (WBC), etc. Multivariate Logistic regression models were created to identify the independent predictors of CDAD. Among 93 PCR tests, 35 were positive in fecal samples. There were HCFA-CDAD (n = 30) and CDAD(-) (n = 58). Thirty-five CDAD(+) hospitalized patients were compared with 105 controls. According to multivariate analyses, the predictors of CDAD included prior hospitalization (P < 0.01, OR = 0.002), CRP(P = 0.008, OR = 3.465), NSAID (P = 0.015, OR = 13.950) and WBC (P = 0.003, OR = 8.063). The administration of NSAID, elevated CRP and abnormal WBC are significantly associated with CDAD.

Factors Predicting Severity in Clostridium difficile Infection

Purpose: The incidence of Clostridium difficile Associated Diarrhea (CDAD) continues to rise; especially among inpatient, elderly, institutionalized, & debilitated populations. RUWA scoring system, a model developed to predict severity of CDAD, has been an important stepping stone in predicting severity. However, to date, no study has established a sufficiently accurate model applicable in community hospitals. The aim of the study is to identify factors predictive of severity & mortality in CDAD in community hospitals. Methods: Charts of 499 patients in 3 community hospitals, diagnosed with CDAD from Jan 2007 to Dec 2008 were retrospectively reviewed. Data was collected on patient factors such as chronic heart, lung, and kidney disease, diabetes, demographics, institutionalization, albumin, creatinine, PMNs, and WBCs. Severe disease was defined as pancolitis or megacolon on CT, mortality, and need for ICU admission. Results: The patients had a mean age of 72.5 years with a standard deviation of 16.42 years. In the study group, 62.12 were female, 50.5% were institutionalized, 72.7% had chronic disease, 11.62% required ICU care, and inpatient mortality was 11.42%. Low albumin (95.5% died vs. 58.3% lived, p=<0.001) and elevated PMNs (89.1% vs. 76.1% p=0.059) were more frequent in CDAD patients who died. Chronic disease was significantly more prevalent in those with CDAD who died during hospitalization compared with those who lived (86% vs. 71%, p=0.017). In our preliminary analysis, we did not find a significant association between institutionalization and CDAD mortality. Chronic disease was less frequent among patients who developed pancolitis or megacolon on CT compared with those who did not have such CT findings (63.7% vs. 75.1%, p=.025). Neither age nor albumin level were significantly related to CT finding of pancolitis or megacolon. Age, albumin, chronic disease, creatinine & PMNs were not significantly associated with the need for ICU admission. History of IBD, surgery, CDAD & subtotal colectomy were not analyzed due to their infrequent occurrence in our population. Conclusion: Mortality of hospitalized patients with C. difficile appear to be related to chronic disease, low albumin, and elevated PMNs. Whereas, institutionalization, age, gender, creatinine, and CT findings are not related to severity. Our study along with the RUWA model form the basis for a future prospective, multicenter trial which would help develop a reproducible model for predicting severity in CDAD in tertiary and community hospitals.

Absence of pseudomembranes in Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in patients using immunosuppression agents

Objective. Clostridium difficile is a major cause of diarrhea in hospitalized patients. Although pseudomembranes are crucial evidence for diagnosis of C. difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD), some cases do not show any pseudomembranes. The aim of this study was to verify the hypothesis that pseudomembranes are not generated in immunosuppressed patients because of the absence of immunoreactions. Material and methods. We investigated the endoscopic findings of patients with ulcerative colitis (UC) or who had received hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, and who presented with C. difficile toxin A and had undergone colonoscopy between April 2002 and July 2007 at our institutes. Results. In 4 patients the diagnosis was UC and C. difficile infection, and in another 4 patients the diagnosis was CDAD after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. None of these cases showed pseudomembranes. Shallow ulcers were found in all four cases with UC. Only non-specific findings were obtained for the CDAD patients after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Conclusions. Pseudomembranes, the typical evidence for CDAD, were not detected in any patients using immunosuppressive agents. Additional bacterial examination is therefore essential when UC becomes exacerbated and when patients present with diarrhea after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation, even in the absence of pseudomembranes.

Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with hematochezia is associated with ulcer formation

Objective. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) is a well-known iatrogenic infection with typical endoscopic features including pseudomembranes and intervening normal mucosa. Clinically, diarrhea frequently occurs, but occurrence of hematochezia is rare. The objective of this study was to investigate the background and endoscopic features of CDAD patients with hematochezia. Material and methods. The endoscopic and clinical findings in 12 patients who showed evidence of C. difficile toxin A and who underwent colonoscopy between April 2002 and July 2007 were investigated retrospectively. Results. Eight patients were diagnosed as having CDAD and 4 patients had a diagnosis of ulcerative colitis. Six of the patients with CDAD presented with hematochezia, and 4 of them were diagnosed with hematological malignancies and received anticancer chemotherapy. Colonic ulcer was demonstrated in all CDAD patients with hematochezia, and bleeding from the ulcer was endoscopically confirmed in all of them. Conclusions. CDAD accompanied by hematochezia is closely associated with ulcer formation. Ulcers are thought to occur during recovery from nadir after anticancer treatment, and white blood cells appear to be essential for their formation. Physicians should therefore pay close attention to the occurrence of colonic ulcer, especially in patients with CDAD during recovery from nadir.

Risk factors for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea on an adult hematology-oncology ward

Nosocomial diarrhea caused by Clostridium difficile causes significant morbidity and mortality in an increasing proportion of hospitalized patients annually. This case-control study of patients admitted to the hematology-oncology ward of a tertiary academic medical center over a 2-year period demonstrates that patients with Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) were 22 times more likely than ward-matched controls with diarrhea to have received any antibiotic either during hospitalization or in the month preceding admission (p < 0.005), and they were nearly three times as likely as controls to have received a cephalosporin during the same period (p < 0.005). Diarrhea among lung cancer patients was approximately three times more likely to be caused by this organism than to be due to other causes (p = 0.04). A trend towards CDAD patients receiving higher numbers of different antibiotics during hospitalization (3.3 vs. 2.6, 95%CI -1.42-0.02, p = 0.06) was noted. Administration of interleukin-2 either during hospitalization or in the 30 days preceding admission was seven times more likely to have occurred in CDAD cases (p = 0.04), raising the question of whether or not this agent increases risk.

Management of Increased Incidence of Clostridium Difficile Associated Diarrhea in a 90 Bed VA Nursing Home

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Incidence of Clostridium difficile associated diarrhea (CDAD) increased in a 90 bed nursing home from 1 per 100 patients(3/277) in the first quarter to 2.4 per 100 patients(6/222) in the second quarter FY04. Immediate actions included (1) Reinforcing staff hand washing with soap and water rather than waterless 62.5% ethyl alcohol hand rub for patients with undiagnosed diarrhea, (2) Changing hospital disinfectant to sodium hypochlorite solution, (3) Placing patients with undiagnosed diarrhea empirically in Contact Precautions, and (4) Increasing frequency of laboratory performance of C. difficile toxins from 3 to 7 times weekly. Rates continued to increase in the 3 rd QTR FY04 to 3.4 per 100 cases (7/233). In response, leadership appointed a Root Cause Analysis (RCA) team to analyze the problem with the objective to reduce and control the incidence of CDAD. METHODS: The RCA composed of infection control, housekeeping, nursing, medicine, pharmacy, and supply evaluated the outbreak. Recommendations included: (1) Development of CDAD medical treatment algorithm, (2) Simplification of Contact Precaution signs highlighting importance of hand washing. (3) Extensive C. difficile education for all healthcare professionals, (5) Replacement of isolation carts with Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) cabinets to improve PPE availability, and (6) Improved tracking of CDAD patients transferred in the facility to ensure continuation of precautions. Cost analysis was conducted for CDAD cases vs. non CDAD cases. Fisher's exact was applied to determine association of incidence before and after actions. RESULTS: Recommendations were implemented in the 4 th QTR FY04. Cases peaked at 4.4 per 100 patients (10/226). (p CONCLUSIONS: Management and education significantly impacted CDAD occurrence as evidenced by the decrease and control of incidence. Significant cost savings at an estimated $1,395,000 were realized with CDAD prevention activities.

Risk Factors for Acquisition of Clostridium difficile–Associated Diarrhea among Outpatients at a Cancer Hospital

Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) is an important infection in hospital settings. Its impact on outpatient care has not been well defined. To examine risk factors of ambulatory cancer patients with CDAD. Case-control study. Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, a tertiary-care hospital. Cases of CDAD among oncology outpatients from January 1999 through December 2000 were'identified via positive C. difficile toxin assay results on stool specimens sent from clinics or the emergency department. A 1:3 matched case-control study examined exposures associated with CDAD. Forty-eight episodes of CDAD were identified in cancer outpatients. The mean age was 51 years; 44% were female. Forty-one (85%) had received antibiotics within 60 days of diagnosis, completing courses a median of 16.5 days prior to diagnosis. Case-patients received longer courses of first-generation cephalosporins (4.8 vs 3.2 days; P = .03) and fluoroquinolones (23.6 vs 8 days; P < .01) than did control-patients. Those receiving clindamycin were 3.9-fold more likely to develop CDAD (P < .01). For each additional day of clindamycin or third-generation cephalosporin exposure, patients were 1.29- and 1.26-fold more likely to develop CDAD (P < .01 and .04, respectively). The 38 CDAD patients hospitalized during the risk period (79.2%) spent more time as inpatients than did control-patients (19.3 vs 9.7 days; P < .001). Antibiotic use, especially with cephalosporins and clindamycin, and prolonged hospitalization contributed to the development of CDAD. Outpatient CDAD appears to be most strongly related to inpatient exposures; reasons for the delayed development of symptoms are unknown.