Climate-smart Practices Research Articles

Constraints Inhibiting Farmers’ Adoption of Cattle Feedlots as a Climate-Smart Practice in Rural Communities of the Eastern Cape, South Africa: An In-Depth Examination

The adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices is crucial for enhancing resilience to climate change in rural communities, particularly in developing regions like the Eastern Cape, South Africa. This study provides an in-depth examination of the factors constraining farmers’ adoption of cattle feedlots as a climate-smart practice in the rural communities of the Eastern Cape. The research aims to identify the barriers and challenges that hinder the widespread adoption of cattle feedlots and understand the underlying factors contributing to the farmers’ decision-making processes. The study employed a mixed-methods approach, including surveys and interviews, to gather data from 250 farmers in rural communities of the Eastern Cape. The data were analyzed using regression analysis and thematic analysis to identify the key constraints inhibiting the adoption of cattle feedlots as a climate-smart strategy. The findings revealed several significant constraints that farmers faced in adopting cattle feedlots. Financial limitations, including limited access to credit and lack of financial resources, emerged as critical barriers. Infrastructure and resource constraints, such as inadequate water supply and electricity, hindered adoption. Knowledge and skills gaps, cultural and social factors, market limitations, and environmental considerations further contributed to the constraints experienced by farmers. To address these constraints, the study proposes interventions to promote the adoption of cattle feedlots as a climate-smart practice. These interventions include improving access to affordable financing options, providing capacity-building programs on feedlot management and climate-smart practices, disseminating information on feedlot benefits and best practices, developing the necessary infrastructure, strengthening market linkages, and creating a supportive policy environment. However, it is important to note the study’s limitations, such as the small sample size and the cross-sectional nature of the data, which may limit the generalizability of the findings. Further research is needed to validate and expand upon these findings in a broader context. Overall, this study provides valuable insights into the factors constraining farmers’ adoption of cattle feedlots as a climate-smart practice in the rural communities of the Eastern Cape, South Africa.

Effect of perception on adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices in Irish potato farming: A case of Ainabkoi, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya

Perception of climate change has been one of the important factors that enables or hinders the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices (CSAPs) among farmers worldwide. Nevertheless, little in-depth analysis and information exist in Kenya on how ⁠ Irish potato farmers perception influence their adoption to CSAPs. It is crucial to understand how farmers perceive the various practices to create successful approaches for ⁠ encouraging the implementation of CSAPs among farmers. The focus of this article is to investigate perception aspects that influence the adoption of CSAPs among Irish potato farmers in ⁠ Ainabkoi, Uasin Gishu County, Kenya. In a population of 1500 Irish potato farmers, a random sample of 196 farmers were interviewed. Descriptive statistics was used to ⁠ analyze farmers' benefits, ⁠ sustainability, and effectiveness perception aspects. SPSS version 28, and Stata version ⁠ 17 software, were employed for econometric analysis. The investigation involved employing a principal ⁠ component analysis (PCA) model. The results of PCA analysis show that the benefits aspect rotated factor ⁠ loadings explained 96.09% of the total variance, sustainability explained 93.61%, and effectiveness accounted for 94.43%. The study recommends that policymakers and extension services focus on increasing farmers' awareness concerning ⁠ the benefits of embracing climate-smart practices in boosting productivity and food security.

Impact of climate change on milk production in Nigeria

This study explores the impacts of climate change on milk production in Nigeria. Climate variables such as temperature, rainfall, sunshine, relative humidity and wind speed were considered as covariates in the analysis. Time-series data spanning a period of forty years obtained from the Central Bank of Nigeria and FAOSTAT database was used. The autoregressive distributed lag model was used to analyze both the short run and long run impacts of climate change on milk production. As expected, not all the variables were stationary at levels, but they were all significant at the difference suggesting the presence of cointegration. The result showed that the Bound’s test F-ratio was statistically significant implies the existence of long run and short run relationships among the variables studied. Present findings revealed that temperature, rainfall and relative humidity had a negative impact on milk production, while sunlight recorded a positive impact on milk production both in the short run and long run estimates. The study concludes that milk production in Nigeria dropped as a result of climate change particularly rising temperature and prolonged rainfall. Agricultural climate smart practices were recommended to mitigate impact of climate change on milk production.

Protected cultivation of horticultural crops in Nepal: Current practices and future needs

Protected cultivation infers the cultivation under guarded conditions or we can say simply, cultivation under a modified atmosphere or man-made micro-climatic conditions such as alteration in the CO2 concentration also use of different temperature levels on specific protected structures such as hoop houses, cold houses, shade houses, hot frames or hotbeds, hot-bed manures as well as high tunnels which are less costly as well and can be easily afforded by Nepalese farmers. Horticultural crops rely heavily on specific environmental conditions i.e., temperature, soil moisture, sunlight, and soil fertility. However, with climate change, weather patterns worldwide are shifting, significantly impacting horticultural crops directly and indirectly in the mid-hills as well as high-hills of Nepal. The people of the mountainous region are getting malnutrition due to the scarcity of food. By adapting the different climate-smart practices we can increase the productivity of the seasonal crop as well as the availability of off-season crops throughout the year which not only improves the malnutrition status of Nepalese people but also helps the country to lower the vulnerability towards climate change. This review highlights the common protected practices used in Nepal and their need in the future.

Groundwater governance under climate change in India: lessons based on evaluation of World Bank interventions

ABSTRACT Groundwater is the single largest source of water for irrigation and domestic use in India. Climate change further exacerbates the threat of depletion, reducing food security and increasing the vulnerabilities of resource users. Governance is complicated by externalities associated with its attributes as an invisible and fluid resource which create problems of rivalry and exclusion. Based on theory-based case studies for evaluation of selected World Bank projects, we analyse challenges for groundwater governance and identify factors that contribute to depletion. It highlights the need for integrating and balancing demand and supply-side approaches, including water-efficient irrigation and climate-smart practices.

Genomic Evaluation of Coffea arabica and Its Wild Relative Coffea racemosa in Mozambique: Settling Resilience Keys for the Coffee Crop in the Context of Climate Change.

Climate change is negatively affecting the coffee value chain, with a direct effect on approximately 100 million people from 80 countries. This has been attributed to the high vulnerability of the two-mainstream species, Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora, to extreme weather events, with notable uneven increases in market prices. Taking into account the narrow genetic plasticity of the commercial coffee cultivars, wild-relatives and underutilized Coffea species are valuable genetic resources. In this work, we have assessed the occurrence of Coffea species in to understand the degree of genetic relationships between Coffea species in the country, as well as the patterns of genetic diversity, differentiation, and genetic structure. Only one wild species was found, C. racemosa, which showed a high level of genetic separation with C. arabica, based on plastid, as well as SSR and SNP analysis. C. arabica presented low levels of diversity likely related to their autogamous nature, while the allogamous C. racemosa presented higher levels of diversity and heterozygosity. The analysis of the functional pathways based on SNPs suggests that the stress signaling pathways are more robust in this species. This novel approach shows that it is vital to introduce more resilient species and increase genomic diversity in climate-smart practices.

Farmer Adoption of Climate-Smart Practices Is Driven by Farm Characteristics, Information Sources, and Practice Benefits and Challenges

Agriculture plays an important role in mitigation and adaptation to climate change. Yet, advances in climate-smart agriculture require a better understanding of farmer adoption. This exploratory paper uncovered differences that distinguish High, Moderate, and Low adopters of climate-smart practices. Our study utilized 952 in-person surveys of California farmers with a focus on mitigation and adaptation practices, along with farm characteristics, information sources, and practice benefits and challenges. Specifically, farmers with larger parcels were more likely to be High adopters, and farmers with access to only one water source were more likely to be Low adopters. There was no significant difference found between Moderate and High adopters’ use of any information sources. The ranking of different information sources changed between groups. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in the rate of Moderate and High adopters’ consideration of practice benefits. All groups identified practice uncertainty as the greatest challenge, with a significant difference between Moderate and High adopters. Our results demonstrate where differences occur between farmer adopter groups and by extension provide insights into where to target outreach efforts to promote the adoption of climate-smart practices in California agriculture.

Mining 4.0 and climate neutrality: A unified and reliable decision system for safe, intelligent, and green & climate-smart mining

The global transition to cleaner energy sources intensifies pressure on the mining industry to secure the supply of energy transition minerals. However, fulfilling the demands of climate-driven technologies must not compromise critical factors such as health, safety, production efficiency, and the environmental and climatic impacts of mineral extraction. To remain future-fit, the mining industry must adapt to changing demands and realize safe, intelligent, and green & climate-smart (SIGCS) practices. This research offers nuanced insight into building a sustainable future for the mining industry with the advent of Mining 4.0. To achieve this, the investigation centers around two objectives. First, it proposes a unified index system for concurrently implementing SIGCS mining. Second, it develops a reliable evaluation model that integrates Z-number theory and Measurement of Alternatives and Ranking according to COmpromise Solution method (Z-MARCOS). The proposed decision system prioritizes twenty-one development approaches according to their significance and determines areas requiring immediate attention to make SIGCS mining successful. Results indicate that “digitization” is the top priority option. “Mechanization and automation”, “intellectualization”, “energy conservation and utilization”, and “autonomous and unmanned vehicles” were ranked second, third, and fourth, respectively. This study is a pioneering effort in providing technical assistance for implementing SIGCS practices, enabling the mining industry to secure the supply of energy transition minerals while contributing responsibly to global efforts towards achieving climate neutrality.

Climate-Smart Conservation Agriculture, Farm Values and Tenure Security: Implications for Climate Change Adaptation and Mitigation in the Congo Basin

Background and Research Aims: Agriculture through deforestation is an important threat to biodiversity conservation in the Congo Basin’s tropical forest. The policy challenge is not only to promote adaptation to perceived climate change but also to promote forest conservation. The aim of this study is to provide empirical evidence on the impact of farm-level investments in climate-smart agricultural practices related to conservation agriculture in some Congo Basin countries. The hypothesis is that property rights to land and trees play a fundamental role in governing the patterns of investment, forestland management for conservation, as well as in the profitability of agriculture. Methods: A Simulated Maximum Likelihood Estimation using a Mixed Logit model is used to test farmers’ choice of agricultural system and a farmland value model for each agricultural system which includes determinants of tenure or property rights, climate, soils, and socioeconomic variables such as education and gender. The data was collected from more than 600 farms covering 12 regions and 45 divisions in 3 countries, Cameroon, the Central African Republic and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Results: Farmers choose one of three agricultural systems to maximize farm profit mindful of the current tenure regime and environmental conditions. Conservation agriculture techniques within climate-smart practices show benefits for smallholder farmers through improvements in soil health, soil moisture retention and enhanced crop yields. The rights to access, withdraw, manage, as well as exclude others from land and trees affect both the farmers' choice of system and the profit earned from the chosen system. Conclusion: Farm-level investments improve farm incomes and enhance conservation effort for farmers perceiving climate change. Implications for Conservation: Climate change adaptation through planting of trees improves soil stability, restores ecosystems and creates a safe haven for biodiversity. Secure land tenure promotes better forestland management and reduces land degradation in vulnerable communities.

Technical Assistance Providers Identify Climate Change Adaptation Practices and Barriers to Adoption among California Agricultural Producers

Climate change will challenge California agriculture, requiring producers (i.e., farmers and ranchers) to adopt climate-adaptive management practices to sustain production. Agricultural technical assistance providers (TAPs) play a significant role in supporting producers’ efforts to adopt climate-smart management practices. It is therefore important to understand current TAP perceptions of climate change, TAP recommendations for climate adaptation, and the barriers to adopting climate-smart practices. To understand these issues, we held four focus group discussions with small groups of TAPs from across the state and evaluated transcripts from the discussions to identify common themes and concepts. The TAPs that participated in the focus groups understood climate change and its impacts on California agriculture, with climate extremes and water-related issues being the most frequently cited climate-related challenges. Focus group discussions and subsequent evaluation revealed that while TAPs recommend science-backed practices for adapting California agriculture to climate change, producers may not be accepting of some recommendations. Critically, the TAP focus groups cited insufficient monetary support—both for themselves and for producers—and insufficient information and messaging around climate-adaptive practices as key barriers to practice adoption. This improved understanding of the intersection of TAPs’ work on climate change and climate adaptation in California agriculture is useful for the development of information and resources that can bridge these identified barriers.

The New Horizons of Law and Science through the Lens of 2030 Sustainable Development Agenda: Some Emerging Issues

The complex sustainability challenges of the 21st century need to be addressed through integrated interdisciplinary approaches, combining science, law, and ethics with concrete, timely, and effective solutions. This study offers a legal framework and a case study to the needs posited by the Agenda 2030 on sustainable development. Starting from an analysis of the first part of the Agenda, the article unfolds by exploring the possibility of defining environmental compliance through environmental responsibility, environmental duties, and the virtuous case of agroecology. The case study focuses on a climate-smart practice applied to the sea and delves into the environmental, nutritional, and health benefits of the marine biomass from Northern Norway. The theoretical framework and the case study will emphasize the importance of systemic approaches to sustainability for putting integral ecology models into action.

Perception on climate change, access to extension service and energy sources determining adoption of climate-smart practices: A multivariate approach

Climate change has an adverse impact on rural livelihoods by increasing vulnerability and reducing crop yields. Climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices have been advanced as a possible solution to adopt and mitigate climate change issues. Administering a structured questionnaire survey among the 494 rural farming households of an eastern Indian state, namely Odisha, the study explores the key determinants of CSA adoption. Three districts, one from the state's coastal and two from the inland regions, are chosen for the study. The majority of the respondents (85%) perceive an increase in temperature and (76%) perceive a decrease in rainfall due to climate change in the region. The respondents have adopted a range of CSA practices such as rescheduling planting (74.5%), crop rotation (59.3%), crop diversification (31.2%), soil conservation (62.1%), drought-resistant seeds (36%) and agroforestry (10.3%) to adapt to these weather anomalies. The current paper employs a multivariate probit model in which the findings of econometric modelling have been triangulated to explore the key determinants of the adoption of CSA practices. The result shows that the key determinants are – perception of climate change, agricultural extension services, and access to energy for irrigation.

English

Multi-stakeholder platforms facilitate interaction between stakeholders in the agricultural innovation system. A multi-stakeholder platform is essential to enhance the innovation of avocado value chain stakeholders and avocado planting as a climate-smart practice. Avocados can make a significant contribution to food security and nutrition. Research has shown that research on climate-smart agriculture mainly focuses on scientific and technological solutions, rather than attempting to comprehend the economic and social dimensions of this study. The study's goal was to identify the interactions between stakeholders in the avocado value chain. The data for this study were gathered using a semi-structured questionnaire and focus group discussions. The study employs the concept of an innovation systems perspective and investigates social network analysis in the context of stakeholders. Information sharing, roles and functions of stakeholders were used as proxies to denote communication. In this study, the multi-stakeholder platform's role in fostering a supportive forum was interpreted as access to information, knowledge, and resources. Findings indicate that smallholder farmers, support service providers and market stakeholders need to be strengthened and empowered to adopt and implement inclusive innovations. This was essential to ensure that stakeholders throughout the value chain had access to tools and resources to promote avocado yield for food, industry, and climate-smart practices. The study concludes that there are distinctions in the roles and responsibilities of stakeholders in the avocado innovation system. Farmers have been discovered to innovate using relevant expertise, even though they are primarily considered users of innovation. The study's recommendation is that smallholder farmers be empowered through capacity building to influence agricultural value chain development and environmental sustainability through information technology. Key words: Avocado value chain, Centrality measure, Domain, Linkages, Multi-stakeholder, Social networks

Myth or reality? The Digitalization of Climate-Smart Agriculture (DCSA) practices in smallholding agriculture in the Bono East Region of Ghana

Digitalization of Climate-Smart Agriculture practices leverages the power of digital agriculture tools/services (DATs) of any form (hardware, software, or data) in Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices to promote enhanced adaptation, GHGs emissions mitigation and increase productivity for smallholding agriculture. This research used a mixture of participatory and learning approaches with an emphasis on Expert Interviews and a Large-scale Household Survey involving 1219 farmers in the Bono East of Ghana to assess the awareness and utilization of DATs in smallholder farmers' CSA practices. Precisely, we assess farmers' engagement with Digital Agriculture Services (DAS) and DAT such as; TVs, Radios, Mobile phones/Tablets, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV)/Drones, Soil Sensor, Moisture Meters, Rain Gauges, Farm Management Software, Smartphone Applications, and Field Thermometers. The research suggests that the ubiquity of TVs, Radios, and feature phones in rural communities makes these tools the most used devices in farmers' climate-smart practices. However, the level of awareness, availability, accessibility, and utilization of complex tools such as UAVs and simpler tools such as soil sensors, moisture meters, field thermometers, rain gauges, smartphone applications (Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, etc.), and farm management software is minimal among rural farmers.The DAS facilitating farmers' climate-smart practices is limited to Digital Agroadvisory Purposes (digital extension), Agri-Digital Finance, and Digital Procurement services, while engagement with other DAS, such as Agri E-Commerce which facilitates most CSA Institution/Market Smart practice, is non-existing in rural communities. In addition, the Digitalization of Climate-Smart Agriculture, in its present form, is only limited to a few CSA practices and DATs engagement among smallholders owing to unmet training and information needs for most Climate-Smart Agriculture practices and interventions. Challenges such as DATs' unavailability, inaccessibility, high cost, high (digital)illiteracy, and inadequate extension support for the digitalization of CSA practices limit uptake. The study proposes increased capacity building for smallholders on CSA practice and interventions. Likewise, a strong public–private partnership across multiple scales is needed to stimulate needed investment to enhance farmers' access to affordable, easy-to-use, and tailor-made DATs while recognizing the power dependence and inequalities these digital tools may unleash in rural communities. Finally, increasing sensitization on DAT's use and benefits in rural communities and the larger population is critical to enhancing the widespread Digitalization of Climate-Smart Agriculture practices in smallholding agriculture.

Climate-Smart Avocado Farming: A Community-Based Approach to Enhance Adaptation and Resilience

The purpose of the study was to promote climate-smart avocado farming among smallholder farmers using a community-based multistakeholder platform. Climate-smart avocado farming aims to increase production, and food security, and reduce risks from erratic weather patterns, aligning with sustainable development goals and enhancing agricultural adaptability. Avocado smallholder farmers and other stakeholders formed a multistakeholder platform to address climate-smart practices and adaptation requirements. Data was collected from a random sample of stakeholders using questionnaires. Descriptive statistics and binary logistic regression examined factors motivating farmers to join the platform. A logistic regression model was applied to test the relationship between farmers' expected benefits and participating in multi-stakeholder platform activities. The results indicate that avocado farming activities increased as follows: production, and marketing of improved avocado seedlings (19.2%), market information (18.26%), avocado quality and market promotion (18.92%), access to financial services (19.14%), and capacity building in avocado as a climate-smart practice (16.5%). Farmers' participation in multi-stakeholder planning is related to their anticipated social, material, and economic benefits. Higher levels of social and economic rewards resulted in more participation in the joint planning stage (OR = 1.454). Higher levels of predicted economic rewards increase participation (OR = 1.776). The study revealed that capacity building for integrating avocado as a climate-smart practice positively impacts smallholder avocado farmers' farming systems. For farmers to better adapt to climate change and build resilience, the government, investors, and practitioners are necessary. Modifying policies and programs for climate adaptation is essential. The study supports expanding the multi-stakeholder approach for smallholder farmers in promoting climate-smart agricultural innovation and contributes to enhancing Agricultural Innovation System in rural setup.

How resilient are US rangeland ecosystems?

While “resilience” has become a buzzword in agriculture and land management circles, notably as a framework for the response to climate change, there has not been a clear path as to how to organize and deploy a range of resilience-related ideas, tools, and practices to improve climate change response. Generic statements about the need for improved resilience are common, and programs to help enhance resilience are common as a basis for policy development and implementation. These initiatives include references to a range of “climate-smart practices” that should be encouraged, but because they are national strategies, they seldom go beyond general principles. Land management requires a level of spatiotemporal precision in decision-making, planning, and application that calls for much more than broad principles and generic practice. This paper reviews the concepts that have made resilience an important part of land management goals across policy, programs, and application; demonstrates how those concepts can be organized and applied to decision-making to respond to climate change on rangelands; and finally, proposes some approaches that can help improve the value of a resilience-based approach.

An Evaluation of Nutritional Security Impacts of Climate-Smart Adaptation Practices among Smallholder Farmers of Eastern Oromia, Ethiopia

Climate impact mitigation through improved agricultural practices is one means by which agricultural productivity increases to meet the growing food demands in the world. This study evaluated the impacts of climate-smart Practices on rural households’ nutrition security. The study used both primary and secondary data sources. Primary data was collected from sample respondents in the 2020/21 production year. Descriptive statistics and econometric models were employed for data analysis. Multinomial logit result indicated that the probability of adopting climate-smart agricultural practices is influenced by the education level of the head, extension contact, livestock holding, membership coop, market information, advice on land management, climate change information, farmers training, climate change perception, and weather road distance. The result from GPS estimation indicated that treatment level two the number of climate-smart practices increases household nutritional status by16%. Likewise, treatment level three and four of the number of climate-smart practices increases the household level nutritional status by 37% and 76% respectively over that of treatment level one of the climate-smart practices and is significant at a 1% statistical probability level. This study has found evidence that the adoption of climate-smart on the households’ nutrition security status. Therefore, the result of this study would be expected to significantly contribute as policy and strategic inputs for policymakers in designing rural livelihood improvement policies and to the beneficiary in enhancing their welfare and living standard.

System of Rice Intensification: Impacts on Crop Productivity and Saving Water in Africa

The System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is a package of practices that changes how rice is grown in paddies, which incredibly increases yields. Rather than fully flooded paddy systems, SRI involves among its practices, the alternate wetting and drying of paddies which saves water, use of less seeds, wider crop spacing, transplanting one seedling per hill and use of organic fertilizers, all of which result in a sturdier rice plant. Other benefits include better grain quality, healthier work environments through reduced water-borne disease vectors and as a climate-smart practice. Data from several African counties shows that SRI increases rice yields by between 20% to 80% depending on variety and local conditions, saves water by about 39% and reduces seed requirement by 66%. SRI has been adopted by millions of farmers worldwide, while within Africa, some 25 countries are documented to have adopted SRI. This paper presents the opportunities inherent in enhancing and promoting SRI adoption of the in Africa. To facilitate this, the SRI-Africa knowledge portal was launched in 2018. The portal collates and shares data, information, publications and happenings in SRI from African counties, thus facilitating promotion of SRI in Africa and worldwide (visit https://sri-africa.net/).

The food-energy-water-carbon nexus of the rice-wheat production system in the western Indo-Gangetic Plain of India: An impact of irrigation system, conservational tillage and residue management

The conventional rice-wheat system in the western Indo-Gangetic plain of India is energy and water intensive with high carbon footprint. The transition towards resource-efficient eco-friendly production technologies with lower footprint is required for inclusive ecological sustenance. A five-year (2016–17 to 2020–21) field experiment was conducted in RWS with hypothesis that pressurized irrigation systems [drip (DRIP) and mini-sprinkler (MSIS)] in conservation tillage [reduced (RT)/zero (ZT)] and crop residue management [incorporation (RI)/mulch (RM)] might result in higher resource use efficiency with lesser carbon footprint compared to conventional system. Experiment consisted five treatments namely (1) puddled transplanted rice followed by conventionally tilled wheat (PTR/CTW), (2) DRIP irrigated reduced till direct seeded rice (RTDSR) followed by zero-till wheat with 100 % rice residue mulching (ZTW + RM) (DRIP-RTDSR/ZTW + RM), (3) surface irrigated RTDSR followed by ZTW + RM (SIS-RTDSR/ZTW + RM), (4) MSIS irrigated RTDSR followed by ZTW + RM (MSIS-RTDSR/ZTW + RM), and (5) MSIS irrigated RTDSR with 1/3rd wheat residue incorporation followed by ZTW + RM (MSIS-RTDSR + RI/ZTW + RM). The pressurized irrigation system in RWS established under conservational tillage and residue management (DRIP-RTDSR/ZTW + RM and MSIS-DSR + RI/ZTW + RM) produced at par system productivity compared to PTR/CTW. Substantial nitrogen (79–114 ka ha−1) and irrigation water (536–680 mm) savings under pressurized irrigation systems resulted in 41–64 % higher partial factor productivity of nitrogen with 48–61 % lower water footprint. These systems had lower energy consumption attaining 15–21 % higher net energy, 44–61 % higher energy use efficiency, and 31–38 % lower specific energy. Efficient utilization of farm inputs caused lower greenhouse gas emission (39–44 %) and enhanced carbon sequestration (35–62 %) resulting 63–76 % lower carbon footprint over PTR/CTW. The information generated here might useful in developing policies for resource and climate–smart food production system aiming livelihood security and ecological sustainability in the region. Further, trials are needed for wider adaptability under different climate, soil and agronomic practices to develop site-specific climate smart practices.

Climate change adaptation and production risks among paddy farmers in Sri Lanka

Production risks are unavoidable in paddy production due to unprecedented climate changes in many developing countries. This study intends to identify the production risks and farmers’ decisions to adapt the climate change in paddy production. A survey was conducted, gathering cross-sectional data from 1410 farmers cultivating paddy in rural Sri Lanka. This research analyses farmers' adaptation decisions against climate change using climate-smart practices, socio-economic parameters, and household characteristics. It estimates the impact of experiencing drought and flood among adapting and non-adapting farming communities. The study uses an endogenous switching regression model to avoid endogeneity and selection bias: the study measures productivity, volatility, downside risk exposure and kurtosis between the adapters and non-adaptors. The results revealed that adaptors are sensitive to drought and flood, influencing the four production outcomes. However, the adaptors significantly reduced their volatility and risk exposure, while the non-adapters were susceptible to environmental stress experiences. Adaptation is highly influenced by climate-related variables and socio-economic and credit-related variables in the empirical analysis. The role of the extension services, access to credit, total credit, and income are prominent in the adaptation of paddy production.