Climate-smart Practices Research Articles

Adoption of Climate-Smart Practices and the Effects on Production Efficiency of Maize Farmers in Northern Nigeria

Adoption of Climate-Smart Practices and the Effects on Production Efficiency of Maize Farmers in Northern Nigeria

WEATHER AT DIFFERENT GROWTH STAGES, MULTIPLE PRACTICES AND RISK EXPOSURES: PANEL DATA EVIDENCE FROM ETHIOPIA

This study investigates the effects of combinations of climate smart agricultural practices on risk exposure and cost of risk. We do this by examining the different risk components — mean, variance, skewness, and kurtosis — in a multinomial treatment effects framework by controlling weather variables for key stages of crop growth. We found that adoption of combinations of practices is widely viewed as a risk-reducing insurance strategy that can increase farmers’ resilience to production risk. The hypothesis of equality of weather parameters across crop development stages is also rejected. The heterogeneous effects of weather across crop growth stages have important implications for climate change adaptation to maximize quasi-option value. For a country that has the vision to build a climate-resilient economy, this knowledge is valuable to identify a combination of climate smart practices that minimizes production risk under variable weather conditions.

Orchard recycling improves climate change adaptation and mitigation potential of almond production systems.

There is an urgent need to develop climate smart agroecosystems capable of mitigating climate change and adapting to its effects. In California, high commodity prices and increased frequency of drought have encouraged orchard turnover, providing an opportunity to recycle tree biomass in situ prior to replanting an orchard. Whole orchard recycling (WOR) has potential as a carbon (C) negative cultural practice to build soil C storage, soil health, and orchard productivity. We tested the potential of this practice for long term C sequestration and hypothesized that associated co-benefits to soil health will enhance sustainability and resiliency of almond orchards to water-deficit conditions. We measured soil health metrics and productivity of an almond orchard following grinding and incorporation of woody biomass vs. burning of old orchard biomass 9 years after implementation. We also conducted a deficit irrigation trial with control and deficit irrigation (-20%) treatments to quantify shifts in tree water status and resilience. Biomass recycling led to higher yields and substantial improvement in soil functioning, including nutrient content, aggregation, porosity, and water retention. This practice also sequestered significantly higher levels of C in the topsoil (+5 t ha-1) compared to burning. We measured a 20% increase in irrigation water use efficiency and improved soil and tree water status under stress, suggesting that in situ biomass recycling can be considered as a climate smart practice in California irrigated almond systems.

The overlooked spatial dimension of climate-smart agriculture.

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) and sustainable intensification (SI) are widely claimed to be high-potential solutions to address the interlinked challenges of food security and climate change. Operationalization of these promising concepts is still lacking and potential trade-offs are often not considered in the current continental- to global-scale assessments. Here we discuss the effect of spatial variability in the context of the implementation of climate-smart practices on two central indicators, namely yield development and carbon sequestration, considering biophysical limitations of suggested benefits, socioeconomic and institutional barriers to adoption, and feedback mechanisms across scales. We substantiate our arguments by an illustrative analysis using the example of a hypothetical large-scale adoption of conservation agriculture (CA) in sub-Saharan Africa. We argue that, up to now, large-scale assessments widely neglect the spatially variable effects of climate-smart practices, leading to inflated statements about co-benefits of agricultural production and climate change mitigation potentials. There is an urgent need to account for spatial variability in assessments of climate-smart practices and target those locations where synergies in land functions can be maximized in order to meet the global targets. Therefore, we call for more attention toward spatial planning and landscape optimization approaches in the operationalization of CSA and SI to navigate potential trade-offs.

Analyzing Impacts of Climate Variability and Changes in Ethiopia: A Review

Climate change is a global problem of this century but its impact is higher in low-income countries like Ethiopia, which has limited capacity to cope with the effects because the country’s economy is based on agriculture that directly affected by the impact of climate change. Subsequently, Ethiopia has been facing severe droughts at least twice per decade and several sever flood hazards. Most of the studies confirmed that the country’s annual temperature is increasing with about 0.37˚C whereas the rainfall has no clear trend and there is high variability with the rising frequency of floods and droughts. The climate changes projection indicated increasing in temperature by 2.2°C and 3.3°C in 2050 and 2090 respectively, but the rainfall trend is uncertain. The drought between 1900 and 2010 killed over 400,000 and exposed 54 million people for starvation and in 2004, 2005, 2008, 2016, and 2017; about 8, 6.3, 11.6, 18, and 8.5 million people respectively, need food aid. The flood in 2006 damaged crops on 1907 hectares and declined productivity by 20%; whereas about 15,600 livestock died and 199,902 people need humanitarian support. The heavy floods resulted in a loss of 1.5 billion tone topsoil which estimated to US$ 106 million. By 2050 climate change will reduce the Ethiopian GDP by 8-10% and 2.4 million people become food unsecured. To mitigate and adapt the impact of climate change the government has implemented the Climate-Resilient Green Economy Strategy since 2011 under which different development activities such as SWC, afforestation, and agroforestry practices, and fodder banks establishment in different localities. The country also implementing different international agreements as tool to fight climate change. Studies have shown that there are hazards of climate change therefore; the government should implement climate-smart practices in all sectors, access to relief funds, and precise early warning systems.

Alley-cropping system increases vegetation heterogeneity and moderates extreme microclimates in oil palm plantations

Forest conversion to oil palm plantation is causing a major loss of biodiversity in Southeast Asia and other tropical regions. Oil palm plantations have less biodiversity because of their simplified vegetation, human disturbances, and extreme microclimate conditions. Alley-cropping system incorporates a secondary crop in the alleys between the main crops. In some cases alley-cropping can result in a greater vegetation structural complexity, thus potentially providing agricultural and ecological benefits, including: buffering against weather extremes, reduction in soil erosion, increased biodiversity, and increased nutrient and water-use efficiency. In this study, we compared vegetation structure (height and cover of vegetation), microclimate (air temperature, relative humidity, light intensity and wind speed), and soil conditions (soil surface temperature, soil pH and soil moisture) across a range of alley-cropping systems and two ages of monoculture oil palm. We found that alley- cropping system had varied structural complexity across different crops when compared to oil palm monoculture system. Careful selection of crops was essential, with black pepper and cacao having the largest impact on improving vegetation heterogeneity and microclimate regulation when incorporated into an alley-cropping system. In particular, we found that systems intercropped with black pepper had air and soil surface temperatures up to 1.3 °C and 2.1 °C cooler than those in oil palm monoculture. In contrast, systems intercropped with bactris and bamboo had increased air temperatures. Our findings show that some alley-cropping systems have great potential as a climate-smart practice in sustainable oil palm agriculture. This study also shows that careful selection of crops is important in the planning and management of future alley-cropping system to optimise the ecosystem benefits that can be gained from this management system.

Impacts of climate smart jute farming on resource use efficiency, productivity and economic benefits in rural Eastern India

The study was conducted in jute-growing areas of West Bengal (India) to explore the potential resource use efficiency for economic benefits of selected climate smart practices to marginal landholder farmers. Integrated crop management (ICM) practices as part of climate smart jute farming (CSJF) was practised by 170 randomly selected farmers in six villages. An estimation of cost of adoption, change in fibre yields, net returns and human development index (HDI) before and after ICM interventions was done. The mean HDI value increased by 38.85% and farm income by 31.5%. The net benefits of adaptation to climate smart jute technologies were estimated based on specific adaptation actions. Empirical scientific evidence of the study indicates that the livelihoods of marginal landholders can be improved using new crop varieties, changing planting dates and bringing necessary changes in other variable inputs for line sowing, intercropping, weeding, nutrients, water and retting.

The roles of risk aversion and climate-smart agriculture in climate risk management: Evidence from rice production in the Jianghan Plain, China

Under pressure to ensure national food security, China’s rice sector needs to adapt to changing climatic conditions. By investigating the effect of farmer’s risk preferences, adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices and use of crop insurance on technical efficiency of rice production, this paper explores climate-smart agriculture as a strategy to cope with climate risk challenges. The empirical investigation adopts a stochastic frontier analysis approach which allows simultaneous estimation of a production function and identification of factors associated with technical efficiency. Data for rice plots of 873 farmers in the Jianghan Plain of China are used to fit the model. Farmers’ risk preferences are measured using a standard experiment approach. Most respondents are found to be risk averse, and greater risk aversion is found to significantly decrease technical efficiency. Using climate-smart practices – crop rotations and conservation tillage – have the extra benefit of improving technical efficiency; crop insurance has no significant effect on technical efficiency. Overall, the results shed new light on the negative role of risk aversion on China’s agriculture, and the multiple benefits of climate-smart practices in creating a stronger agricultural production system that is resilient to climate risks.

Determinants Of Farmers’ Adoption Of Alternate Wet And Dry Techniques In Lowland Rice Production In Ghana, Uganda And Cameroon For Climate Smart Agriculture

Lowland rice production has been introduced in many African countries because it more than double yields from upland. Irrigated lowland rice production generates Green House Gas (GHG) emissions roughly four times the GHG emissions per ton of crop as wheat or maize, mostly in form of methane and nitrous oxide. Alternate Wet and Dry (AWD) as a water management was introduced as a system to reduce GHG, however what factors affects the use of Alternate Wet and Dry Technique? A simple random sampling technique was used to select 120, 150 and 300 rice farmers from irrigation schemes in (Tema) Ghana, (Doho) Uganda and (Ndop) Cameroon respectively. Data were collected on their socio-economic characteristics, use of Alternate Wet and Dry Irrigation and knowledge of AWD for climate smart agriculture. Data analysis was carried out using descriptive statistics and probit regression was used as an inferential statistics to analyze the factors influencing the respondents’ adoption of Alternate Wet and Dry technique. The results show that majority of farmers were female and male, married, with mean age of 50 and 45.6; having mean farm size of 0.4 and 0.25ha in Ghana and Uganda respectively. In Cameroon, majority of farmers were male, married, with mean age of 45years; having mean farm size of 1ha. Significant determinants of the use of Alternate Wet and Dry technique across the countries were knowledge of the production technique, contact with extension, farm size, farming experience, awareness of climate smart practices, timeliness of operations, sources of information and implementation accuracy of technology. These significant variables have implication for reductions of GHG emissions from lowland rice production and points out the important roles of extension and rural advisory services in promoting effective adoption of climate smart agricultural innovations for sustainable food security and safer environment for all.

Climate-smart practices for improvement of crop yields in mid-hills of Nepal

Farming in Nepal mostly represents the hill farming system with the dominance of small-holder farmers. In recent days, farmers in the country are impacted by climate change. Events of surface runof...

Intervention of Climate Smart Agriculture Practices in Farmers Field to Increase Production and Productivity of Winter Maize in Terai Region of Nepal

Climate change has been the burning issue in agriculture sector. The research world is focused on developing appropriate technology, innovations and concept to cope up this change. The Climate Smart Agriculture [CSA] has been adapted globally for cultivation and crop management in changing context without compromising yield and productivity. The CSA involves wide range altered techniques and innovations like using resilient varieties, water management, zero tillage, legumes incorporation, cover cropping, site specific fertilizer management, variation in planting date etc. Grounding on the similar practices and principles of CSA, the research in maize was conducted in 2014 in farmers' field of Eastern Nepal. Three progressive farmers with 1 hector of land were selected and Maize was cultivated using Zero tillage seed cum fertilizer driller tractor. This field experiment considers farmers as replication with six different treatments. All treatments differ to each other based on nutrient management, water management, residue management, tillage practice, crop establishment, and inclusion of legumes in the cropping system. Six treatments are coded as follows: Current Irrigated (CI), Improved Irrigated Low (IIL), Improved Irrigated High (IIH), Climate Smart Agriculture-Low (CSA-L), Climate Smart Agriculture-Medium (CSA-M), and Climate Smart Agriculture-High (CSA-H). Significant impact of intervention was observed in yield and yield attributes in the trial with climate smart agriculture practices than in conventional practices of farmers. Plant density, ear number, filled grains per cob and grain yield was substantially higher in climate smart practices revealing CSA to be the appropriate technology to minimize potential loss of climate change.

Extreme stress threatened double rice production in Southern China during 1981–2010

Global warming has increased the frequency of extreme weather, resulting in severe losses in crop production. Double rice (Oryza sativa L.) cropping system, a system where two seasons of rice are grown per year, is thus facing challenges in maintaining its yield stability throughout Southern China. Therefore, the current study was focused on the multiple stresses induced by climate change, yield anomaly, and losses for the double rice were then examined across different growth stages. Results showed the increase in both high-temperature and water-related stresses during the past three decades, while the low temperature stress for the late rice was not severe. However, the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River (MLRYZ) were subject to less severe stresses compared with that of the South China (SC). Yield anomaly varied among subregions for both early rice and late rice. A case study in Hunan province showed that extreme stresses threatened the yield of double rice system, and vapor pressure deficits changed yield by − 6.66% for the early rice and − 1.82% for the late rice. Thus, climate-smart practices are needed for the double rice cropping system in Southern China to mitigate the effects of extreme weather and stabilize double rice yield.

How climate awareness influences farmers’ adaptation decisions in Central America?

Central America is one of the regions with the highest vulnerability to climate change, with negative effects projected to affect its economy and food security. To address this issue, an integrative farm management approach such as Climate-Smart Agriculture can help reorient agricultural practices towards climate adaptation and food security. Past studies have shown that several factors can either hinder or encourage the adoptions of Climate-Smart practices, including subjective expectations and perceptions. Building on this literature, we analyze farmers' climate awareness and their perceptions regarding the change in climate patterns as well as their choices of farming practices to adapt to these changes. We show that reforestation was the preferred adaptation strategy among interviewed farmers and that educational profiles and the size of landholdings drive the adoption of this and other practices. Soil management and introduction of new crops are preferred by literate farms with large farmlands, whereas illiterate farmers with smaller farmland tend to move towards farm intensification with an increase in the utilization of external inputs. Our findings provide evidence to support the design of capacity development interventions targeting specific groups of farmers according to their main crop and education profile.

Remote Sensing-Based and Participatory Analysis of Forests, Agricultural Land Dynamics, and Potential Land Conservation Measures in Kloto District (Togo, West Africa)

This study investigates proximate drivers of cropland and forest degradation in the Kloto district (Togo, West Africa) as a way of exploring integrated sustainable landscape approaches with respect to socioeconomic and environmental needs and requirements. Net change analysis of major cash and food crops based on Landsat data from three time steps (1985–2002, 2002–2017, and 1985–2017) and quantitative analysis from participatory survey data with farmers and landowners are used. The study underlines poor agricultural systems and cassava farming as major factors contributing to the alarming forest losses between 1985 and 2017. A significant net loss in forest cover of 23.6% and areas under maize and cocoa agroforestry farming of 12.99% and 10.1% between 1985 and 2017, respectively, was noted. These significant losses are due to intensive cassava cropping (38.78%) and settlement expansion (7.87%). Meanwhile, the loss of forest cover between 2002 and 2017 was marginal (8.36%) compared to the period 1985–2002, which had a considerable loss of 15.24%. Based on participatory surveys, the majority of agricultural lands are threatened by erosion or physical deterioration (67.5%), land degradation or salt deposits and loss of micro/macro fauna and flora (56.7%), declines in soil fertility (32.5%) and soil water holding capacity (11.7%), and changes in soil texture (3.3%). Most farmers adhere to the proposed climate smart practices, with an emphasis on cost-effective drip irrigation systems (45.83%), soil mulching (35%), and the adoption of drought-resilient varieties (29.17%) to anticipate adverse spells. We conclude that low adoption of improved soil conservation, integrated water management, and harvesting systems and the use of less productive and adaptive cultivars entail extreme degradation of cropland and a decline in crop productivity. Consequently, farmers are forced to clear more forest in search of stable and healthy soil to meet their food demands and improve their livelihood. Capacity building on integrated pathways of soil and land management practices is therefore needed to ensure sustainable and viable socio-ecological systems at a local scale.

Resource Use Efficiency as a Climate Smart Approach: Case of Smallholder Maize Farmers in Nyando, Kenya

To simultaneously enhance agricultural productivity and lower negative impacts on the environment, food systems need to be much more efficient in using resources such as land, water, and fertilizer. This study examines resource use efficiency of maize production among smallholder farmers in Nyando, Kenya. The main objective is to assess the degree of technical efficiency of smallholder farmers and identify the impact of so-called “climate smart practices” on technical efficiency. The method of Stochastic Frontier Analysis is used to simultaneously estimate a stochastic production frontier and a technical inefficiency effect model. Data for 324 subplots farmed by 170 households were available for this analysis. The study reveals that maize production in Nyando is associated with mean technical efficiency of 45% and that soil conservation practices such as residue management, legume intercropping, and improved varieties significantly increase farmers’ technical efficiency. Soil carbon is found to be a critical factor of production. These results imply that there is potential to more than double production using the same resources and that soil conservation practices can be very “climate smart,” at once increasing soil carbon, production, climate resilience, and technical efficiency.

Sustainability, institutional arrangement and challenges of community based climate smart practices in northwest Ethiopia

BackgroundCrop productivity in the highlands of Ethiopia is critically challenged by land degradation and climate change and variability. Massive plantations and several kilometers of soil and water conservation technologies have been practiced in response to those challenges. Yet land degradation and the level of sustainability of the technologies have continued to be critical challenges. Thus, the objective of this research was to examine the sustainability, challenges and future prospect of climate smart community-based soil and water conservation practices. Data were collected using household survey, key informant interview and focus group discussion. Analytic hierarchy process for multi-criteria decision making was used to analyze the sustainability of community-based climate smart practices.ResultsThe finding revealed that the overall score of the sustainability dimensions was about 67.5%, which lies in the zone of “sustained but at risk.” The institutional arrangement has limitations in that farmers were involved in implementation phase while there is little room in planning, monitoring and evaluation phases. The major challenges of the soil and water conservation practices were: destruction of the communal forests and structures for personal benefits, overlapping work calendar with irrigation and off-farm works and structures wasted farmland.ConclusionsThe success of the structures from the perspective of officials is expressed in terms of the numbers of kilometers constructed and community participation. However, it overlooks how it reduces the problem of land degradation and challenge of climate change and variability. Thus, in order to sustain the structures, direct participation of farmers at all stages of the work is encouraged. The sustainability of structures can also be partly ensured if it generates benefit to the local community.

Climate change adaptation: a study of multiple climate-smart practices in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia

Improving farm-level use of multiple climate change adaptation strategies is essential for improving household food security, particularly against a backdrop of a high risk of climatic shocks. However, the empirical foundation for understanding how farm households choose multiple climate-smart practices is far from being established. In this paper, the effects of household, farm and climatic factors on farmers’ decisions to use multiple adaptation practices are analysed. A survey of 921 farm households and 4312 farm plots combined with historical climate data in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia is explored using multivariate and random effect ordered probit econometric models. Results show agricultural production can be characterized by complementarities between adaptation practices. This result is important to designing packages of adaptation practices. The econometric results confirm that social capital, tenure security and climatic shocks are important determinants of the choice of the type and number of adaptation practices. The results suggest the need for carefully designing combinations of adaptation strategies based on agro-ecological conditions.

Farmers’ intrinsic values for adopting climate-smart practices in Kenya: empirical evidence from a means-end chain analysis

This study assesses intrinsic values and motivations farmers have for adopting various climate-smart agricultural practices in Kenya. The qualitative method of laddering was employed as an interview technique, and means-end chain analysis was used for hierarchical mapping in order to depict farmers’ decision-making processes concerning the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices as well as their envisioned goals and values underpinning these actions. The findings show that farmers decided on measures that improved farm productivity, food security and household income. The study highlights that an irreconcilable conflict between values exists due to changing climate conditions. It will be difficult for women attached to conservative values to pursue achievement or benevolence values. Similarly, male-differentiated values suggest a need for a trade-off of their self-enhancement values that oppose universalism values related to environmental sustainability and welfare for all. The findings call for the design of climate change policies and adaptation interventions that take into account farmers’ fundamental values and their gendered preferences.

The way forward: An agroecological perspective for Climate-Smart Agriculture

The concept of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) has consistently been positioned between science and policy. CSA has given rise to a lively debate in both the scientific community and civil society although it addresses the pressing need for an efficient strategy to manage agriculture and food systems facing climate change (CC). CSA formally targets the simultaneous fulfilment of three criteria: (i) CC mitigation, (ii) adaptation to CC and (iii) food security. Yet, the review of scientific literature on CSA displays a clear discrepancy between these three objectives, underlining the fact that CSA is regularly perceived as addressing only adaptation, and not mitigation and food security. On the other hand, research on agroecology (AE) reveals an extensive knowledge about food security and adaptation, often at scales which can be considered complementary to those of CSA. A better use by CSA of AE research results may help CSA focus on two currently overlooked dimensions, i.e. (i) mitigation and (ii) trade-offs and synergies between the three criteria. CSA does not have a specific blueprint for climate-smart practices and has rather a strong focus on policies, institutions and financing. Hence AE actually responds to the needs of CSA in terms of site-specificity and potential for adoption by farmers because it is strongly based on local practices. We argue that an eco- and socio-logical approach to CSA represents a sine qua non condition if CSA is to promote inclusive development and participate to collective efforts to manage agriculture and food systems under climate change.

DOES ADOPTION OF MULTIPLE CLIMATE-SMART PRACTICES IMPROVE FARMERS’ CLIMATE RESILIENCE? EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM THE NILE BASIN OF ETHIOPIA

There is a paucity of information on conditioning factors that hinder or promote adoption of multiple climate-smart practices and on the synergies among such practices in increasing household resilience by improving agricultural income. This study analyzes how heat, rainfall, and rainfall variability affect farmers’ choices of a portfolio of potential climate smart practices — agricultural water management, improved crop seeds, and fertilizer — and the impact of these practices on farm income in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia. We apply a multinomial endogenous switching regression approach by modeling combinations of practices and net farm income for each combination as depending on household and farm characteristics and on a set of climatic variables based on geo-referenced historical precipitation and temperature data. A primary result of this study is that farmers are less likely to adopt fertilizer (either alone or in combination with improved varieties) in areas of greater rainfall variability. However, even when there is high variability in rainfall, farmers are more likely to adopt these two yield-increasing inputs when they choose to (and are able to) include the third part of the portfolio: agricultural water management. Net farm income responds positively to agricultural water management, improved crop variety or fertilizer when they are adopted in isolation as well as in combination. But this effect is greater when these practices are combined. Simulation results suggest that a warming temperature and decreased precipitation in future decades will make it less likely that farmers will adopt practices in isolation but more likely that they will adopt a combination of practices. Hence, a package approach rather than a piecemeal approach is needed to maximize the synergies implicit in various climate smart practices.