Clerical Workers Research Articles

The Warsaw Governorship General as a Transit Destination for Emigration from the Russian Empire in the Late 19th – Early 20th Centuries

The Warsaw Governorship General played a significant role in the illegal emigration from the Russian Empire, which became a significant state problem at the turn of the XIX–XX centuries. Based on pre-revolutionary legislation and a wide range clerical work documents from the archives of Russia and Poland, the peculiarities of crossing the state border within the Warsaw Governorship General up to the outbreak of the First World War are considered. The proximity to German ports on the Baltic Sea, the existence of extensive networks of emigration offices, the difficulty of legal emigration, the absence of natural barriers and the unsatisfactory state of border protection led most emigrants to choose an illegal crossing of the border. The authorities of the Russian Empire have developed an extensive system of norms regulating the border regime in the Warsaw Governorship General. The rules established to simplify cross-border contacts served to those who, pretended to be residents of the border strip, illegally crossed abroad. The connivance of officials contributed to this. The local population was also involved in the organization of illegal emigration and helped to supply emigrants with legal documents for the right to leave the empire.

Effect of streamlining prior authorization processes for systemic cancer treatments on efficiency and financial losses.

412 Background: Prior authorizations (PAs) for systemic cancer treatments are a barrier to timely quality cancer care delivery. The high administrative burden to complete peer to peer’s (P2P) and appeals leads to care delays and revenue losses. At our tertiary academic cancer center, in partnership with our cancer registry and Epic teams, we shifted the clerical work required for PAs from clinicians to certified tumor registrars (CTRs) to increase authorization efficiency and decrease financial losses from denials. Methods: Clinicians place the treatment plan order which goes to the CTR work queue. We leveraged the Epic staging smart form to consolidate and auto-populate common elements needed for PA. The CTRs then complete and validate the form prior to the authorization specialists obtaining the PA. We compared the pre (1/2022-9/2022) and post-implementation (11/2022-4/2024) periods on our primary outcomes: average monthly number of PAs pending review (including P2P, appeals and authorizations requiring clarifying clinical documentation), average monthly denial rate and average time spent on PAs by the authorization specialists. We compared the financial losses from denied PAs from calendar year 2022 to 2023. Analyses were conducted using descriptive statistics. Results: There was a 1.4% reduction in the average monthly number of PA’s pending review (350 vs 345). The average monthly authorized rate was steady from the beginning of the intervention (94%) to present time (95%). The average monthly denial rate was 2.9% at the beginning of the intervention and 0.9% at present time. There was a consistent decrease in the average time a PA was spent in pending review status: 118 hours in 2022, 102 hours in 2023 and 79 hours in quarter 1 of 2024. Despite the overall increase in volume of authorizations submitted, there was an overall cost savings of $27,392,894 from 2022 ($49,964,703) to 2023 ($22,571,809) from the decrease in denials. In 2022, 6.2% of total approved charges were denied and this decreased to 2.7% in 2023. Conclusions: By leveraging the EHR and optimizing existing non-clinical staff workflows, we maintained sustained average authorized and denial rates despite overall volume going up due to improved authorization efficiency and reduced financial losses due to denials. Additionally, there were overall cost savings for the institution due to the decreased percent of denials of total approved charges. Future work will include further refinement of treatment and disease specific optimizations.

Does Working Full-Time Guarantee Hospital Service Workers’ Material Well-Being? A Latent Class Regression Analysis

Abstract Despite efforts to maintain a satisfactory quality of life, a significant proportion of American workers face substantial material hardship. However, studies of material hardship have paid scant attention to lower-wage workers; hospital service, clerical, and technical workers represent a crucial yet understudied subset of this population. Using survey data from hospital workers employed by a large hospital in Pennsylvania, this research identified prevailing patterns of material hardship among these workers and investigated contributing factors, including hourly wages, utilization of public benefits, and demographics. The findings revealed the presence of two distinct material hardship groups: the high-hardship group (those with a high risk of experiencing multiple hardships concurrently) and the low-hardship group (those with a low risk). Notably, higher wages, better health, and being White were associated with a reduced likelihood of belonging to the high-hardship group. Conversely, an increased number of children in a household and utilization of a utility bill assistance program were associated with an elevated risk of belonging to the high-hardship group. The results hold several policy implications, including the need to increase hourly wages, enlarge antipoverty policy initiatives, enhance access to preventive health services, and offer more comprehensive childcare support.

“Fed Up”: A Clerical Workers’ Manifesto Sparks a Comparable-Worth Campaign at the University of California at Berkeley, 1970–1974

“Fed Up”: A Clerical Workers’ Manifesto Sparks a Comparable-Worth Campaign at the University of California at Berkeley, 1970–1974

The Impacts of Remote Work and Attitudinal Shifts on Commuting Reductions in Post-COVID Melbourne, Australia

This paper analyses the commuting frequencies and modal choices of travellers in Melbourne, using a dataset reflecting travel behaviour before and after COVID-19. A factor analysis of 63 latent variables identified seven key factors, which were used in cluster analysis to examine the relationships between latent constructs, land use, and socio-demographic variables, as well as commuting behaviours. The analysis categorised white-collar employees into four groups based on their remote work engagement, with socio-demographics and industry type as key factors. The analysis shows that female clerical and administrative workers who worked from home during the pandemic are now returning to the office, raising gender equality concerns within society. Meanwhile, the education and training sector mandates office attendance despite the feasibility of remote work, as universities prioritise in-person attendance to attract more international students, impacting societal norms around telecommuting. The analysis revealed that saving on commute costs, reducing travel time, and spending more time with family are the among the primary factors influencing travel behaviour among white-collar employee’s post-pandemic. The study found that the decrease in public transport trips is associated with increased telecommuting rather than service dissatisfaction, especially among Central Business District (CBD) employees who still rely on public transport. This trend suggests that the CBD sector’s growing acceptance of remote work is reducing daily commutes, which puts additional pressure on public transport providers to sustain and improve their services. A decline in service quality could further reduce ridership, highlighting the need for consistent, high-quality public transport. Furthermore, the study found that increased telecommuting is likely to reduce car trips in the future, especially among healthcare and social workers who prefer driving due to public transport’s unreliability for their demanding schedules. By examining variables like the advantages and disadvantages of working from home, convenience, accessibility, and the efficiency of public transport, this study enhances the understanding of transport behaviour and underscores the need to improve public transport reliability to support sustainable cities as remote work grows.

“We do others’ Jobs”: a qualitative study of non-nursing task challenges and proposed solutions

IntroductionNon-nursing tasks (NNTs) have become a prevalent issue among healthcare professionals, affecting nurses globally. This study delves into the experiences of Jordanian nurses regarding NNTs, aiming to uncover challenges and propose solutions within the Jordanian healthcare context.ObjectiveExplore the impact of NNTs on Jordanian nurses’ roles, workload, and satisfaction. Additionally, the study aims to identify various types of NNTs performed by nurses, understand their impact, and propose solutions to mitigate challenges associated with these tasks.MethodsA qualitative-exploratory research design was employed for this study. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with Jordanian nurses using a purposeful sampling approach to ensure a diverse representation of experiences and perspectives. Thematic analysis was used to identify recurring themes and patterns related to NNTs, their challenges, and potential solutions. Ethical guidelines were strictly followed to maintain participant confidentiality and ensure the integrity of the data collected.ResultsAnalysis of the interviews revealed four major themes: challenges of NNTs, types of NNTs, impact of NNTs, and proposed solutions. Nurses faced significant difficulties due to task ambiguity, role confusion, and increased workload from NNTs, which included administrative duties, clerical work, and tasks typically performed by other healthcare professionals. These NNTs negatively impacted nurses’ effectiveness, productivity, and job satisfaction by diverting time and energy from primary nursing responsibilities, causing professional strain. To address these issues, participants suggested clearer job descriptions, stricter task assignment protocols, and systemic changes to tackle the root causes of NNTs.ConclusionThis study sheds light on the pervasive challenges posed by NNTs among Jordanian nurses and emphasizes the importance of addressing these issues to enhance nursing care quality and nurse well-being. By proposing actionable solutions tailored to the Jordanian context, this research contributes to the global discourse on NNTs and underscores the need for organizational support and advocacy to optimize nurses’ roles and improve patient care outcomes.

Logistics and administration-related stressors among young physicians working in the emergency medicine (EM) department and their perceived job satisfaction in EM department across hospitals of India: a nationwide multicentric digital survey

ObjectiveEmergency medicine (EM) is a growing specialty in India with the board approving training programme commencing only since 2009. This study aimed to identify the challenges faced by EM department...

The Maetreum of Cybele

In 2008, a legal case, “The Maetreum of Cybele, Magna Mater, Inc. v. Nancy McCoy [tax assessor)] &c., et al., for recognition of tax-exempt status between the Maetreum of Cybele, Magna Mater Inc. and the Town of Catskill, New York” began. The court was asked to decide whether the pastoral work of a Pagan church could be viewed in the same way as the clerical work of other accepted religions. The court also needed to determine how much of the landholdings must be dedicated to worship space. The rulings have been cited as precedent in other cases. In addition, they can act as a rallying point for other new religious movements and Pagan groups to fight for equal legal status.

Understanding and including 'pink-collar' workers in employment-based travel demand models.

The segmentation of commuters into either blue or white-collar workers remains is still common in urban transport models. Internationally, models have started to use more elaborate segmentations, more reflective of changes in labour markets, such as increased female participation. Finding appropriate labour market segmentations for commute trip modelling remains a challenge. This paper harnesses a data-driven approach using unsupervised clustering-applied to 2017-20 South East Queensland Travel Survey (SEQTS) data. Commuter types are grouped by occupational, industry, and socio-demographic variables (i.e., gender, age, household size, household vehicle ownership and worker skill score). The results show that at a large number of clusters (i.e., k = 8) a highly distinct set of commuter types can be observed. But model run times tend to require a much smaller number of market segments. When only three clusters are formed (k = 3) a market segmentation emerges with one female-dominated type ('pink collar'), one male-dominated type ('blue collar') and one with both genders almost equally involved ('white collar'). There are nuances as to which workers are included in each segment, and differences in travel behaviours across the three types. 'Pink collar' workers are mostly comprised of female clerical and administrative workers, community and personal service workers and sales workers. They have the shortest median commutes for both private motorised and active transport modes. The approach and methods should assist transport planners to derive more accurate and robust market segmentations for use in large urban transport models, and, better predict the value of alternative transport projects and policies for all types of commuters.

Who intended to leave? Patterns and impacts of Hong Kong's recent wave of migration

AbstractDuring Hong Kong's 2019 political turmoil and the subsequent impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, a rapid rise in turnover rates in certain occupations, such as teachers, medical workers and civil servants, was observed. Some attributed this trend to the increasing rate of emigration. Previous studies have suggested that younger and better‐educated individuals are more likely to emigrate, and that the emigration of a specific group of the population has various impacts on the society of origin. Therefore, we explored the demographic characteristics of potential emigrants in Hong Kong and contrasted such findings with a previous wave of migration to examine the potential impact of the current wave. Based on a territory‐wide telephone survey, we found that (1) the associations of age and level of education with the intention to emigrate internationally (i.e., to destinations other than mainland China) corresponded to the typical young, well‐educated emigrant described in the literature; (2) a higher level of income was associated with a lower intention of international migration; (3) people in occupations such as professionals and managers, clerical and service workers and students reported a greater intention to emigrate than other groups; and (4) individuals born in Hong Kong were more likely to emigrate and less likely to move to mainland China than those born in mainland China. The implications of these intended migration patterns for ageing and fertility, short‐ and long‐term workforce shortages in tertiary sectors and the city's overall competitiveness are discussed.

Occupational Risk Factor for Carpel Tunnel Syndrome Related to Computer Usage: A Descriptive Cross-Sectional Study

Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is triggered by compression of the median nerve as it travels through the wrist's carpal tunnel. CTS is also more likely to occur if you work in certain occupations such as Related with clerical and administrative work on Computer. Objective: To identify the frequency and pattern of CTS among clerical and administrative workers using computer. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional study was started from October 2021 to January 2022 between 20-50 years of age at five Private colleges in Lahore city. The participants fulfilling the inclusion criterion were using computer for more than 6 hours a day, having co-operative attitude, weren’t taking any analgesics and had no associated co-morbidities. After informed consent 200 participants were enrolled using convenient sampling method. Sample size was calculated by taking average from previous research publications. A designed questionnaire was given among the participants to obtain information about demographics and Phalen’s test for CTS. Data were entered and analyzed in SPSS version 21.0. Results: The Results shows that 5 participants have Positive CTS in 20-30, 10 in 31-40, 14 in 41-50 age group. Positive CTS was considered positive via Phalen’s Test. Males have higher frequency of CTS as 21 Males and 8 Females with Positive Phalen’s test. Conclusions: CTS is related with an occupational factor in terms of computer usage. It is common in males because of excess workload and job duties

Impact of 24 h shifts on urinary catecholamine in emergency physicians: a cross-over randomized trial

24-h shift (24 hS) exposed emergency physicians to a higher stress level than 14-h night shift (14 hS), with an impact spreading on several days. Catecholamines are supposed to be chronic stress biomarker. However, no study has used catecholamines to assess short-term residual stress or measured them over multiple shifts. A shift-randomized trial was conducted to study urinary catecholamines levels of 17 emergency physicians during a control day (clerical work on return from leave) and two working day (14 hS and 24 hS). The Wilcoxon matched-pairs test was utilized to compare the mean catecholamine levels. Additionally, a multivariable generalized estimating equations model was employed to further analyze the independent relationships between key factors such as shifts (compared to control day), perceived stress, and age with catecholamine levels. Dopamine levels were lower during 24 hS than 14 hS and the control day. Norepinephrine levels increased two-fold during both night shifts. Epinephrine levels were higher during the day period of both shifts than on the control day. Despite having a rest day, the dopamine levels did not return to their normal values by the end of the third day after the 24 hS. The generalized estimating equations model confirmed relationships of catecholamines with workload and fatigue. To conclude, urinary catecholamine biomarkers are a convenient and non-invasive strong measure of stress during night shifts, both acutely and over time. Dopamine levels are the strongest biomarker with a prolonged alteration of its circadian rhythm. Due to the relation between increased catecholamine levels and both adverse psychological effects and cardiovascular disease, we suggest that emergency physicians restrict their exposure to 24 hS to mitigate these risks.

Self-Employment Dynamics amid High Unemployment: An Empirical Analysis of Transitional Labour Market in India

There is a high unemployment rate in India, and self-employment is considered a way to create more jobs and stimulate the economy. However, personal and family characteristics and occupational structure play a role in determining who is likely to pursue self-employment. We conducted a study to assess the probability of Indian youth choosing self-employment over regular-wage employment. Our findings show that females living in rural areas and married individuals are more likely to choose self-employment than their male, urban, and unmarried counterparts. Education is also a factor, as those with higher education tend to seek regular-wage employment. Certain occupations, such as technicians and clerical support workers, are less likely to pursue self-employment. To promote self-employment among youth, there should be a focus on enhancing entrepreneurial skills and capabilities.

Effects of E-Mentoring on Japanese clerical employees’ vocational identity during teleworking

ABSTRACT This study examined the effect of e-mentoring on vocational identity during teleworking; it clarified the relationship between teleworkers’ vocational identity and e-mentoring compared with that of non-teleworkers according to career stage. An online survey was conducted and measured vocational identity and mentoring function (career function and psychosocial function). Collected data from 419 clerical workers (211 teleworkers, 208 non-teleworkers) who had a mentor or a protégé were analyzed. The results of multiple-group structural equation model suggested that in the early career stage, it was especially important for teleworkers to receive psychosocial functions from mentors as protégés. At the late career stage, it was necessary for teleworkers to provide psychosocial functions to protégés as mentors; at that stage, it was important for non-teleworkers to offer career functions. The results also suggested that toward developing vocational identity, the mentoring relationship was more important for teleworkers, who easily become isolated, than for non-teleworkers.

Temporal changes in cumulative mortality risks of cancer, by occupation, in the working population of Japan from 1995 to 2020: a benchmark for radiation risk comparison

The purpose of this study was to provide benchmark data for discussing the tolerability of cancer risk associated with occupational radiation exposure. It focused on differences in cancer mortality risk by occupation among Japan’s working population and examined baseline cancer mortality risks and its variations from 1995 through 2020. Data were collected every five years from national vital statistics sources. By focusing on the same types of cancer among radiation induced effects, cumulative mortality risks were calculated for colorectal, lung, and breast cancer (females only) for those aged 15–74. The average cumulative mortality risk for the working population in Japan has decreased by 30%–60% over the past 25 years. Service workers and male managers were at an average risk, among all workers, while clerical workers and transportation and manufacturing workers had about half the average risk. The risks were higher for professionals and female managers, about 1.5–2 times the average for professionals and up to 5 times the average for female managers. The decrease in the average cancer mortality risk in the working population as a baseline suggests that risk tolerance in society might have changed over time. Since differences in mortality by occupation were confirmed, the usefulness of occupational data as a benchmark needs further investigation, as high-risk/low-risk occupations vary by country and region. The results of this study contribute to put radiation risks into perspective with the background risk of cancer.

Ambient Artificial Intelligence Scribes to Alleviate the Burden of Clinical Documentation

Clinical documentation in the electronic health record (EHR) has become increasingly burdensome for physicians and is a major driver of clinician burnout and dissatisfaction. Time dedicated to clerical activities and data entry during patient encounters also negatively affects the patient–physician relationship by hampering effective and empathetic communication and care. Ambient artificial intelligence (AI) scribes, which use machine learning applied to conversations to facilitate scribe-like capabilities in real time, has great potential to reduce documentation burden, enhance physician–patient encounters, and augment clinicians’ capabilities. The technology leverages a smartphone microphone to transcribe encounters as they occur but does not retain audio recordings. To address the urgent and growing burden of data entry, in October 2023, The Permanente Medical Group (TPMG) enabled ambient AI technology for 10,000 physicians and staff to augment their clinical capabilities across diverse settings and specialties. The implementation process leveraged TPMG’s extensive experience in large-scale technology instantiation and integration incorporating multiple training formats, at-the-elbow peer support, patient-facing materials, rapid-cycle upgrades with the technology vendor, and ongoing monitoring. In 10 weeks since implementation, the ambient AI tool has been used by 3,442 TPMG physicians to assist in as many as 303,266 patient encounters across a wide array of medical specialties and locations. In total, 968 physicians have enabled ambient AI scribes in ≥100 patient encounters, with one physician having enabled it to assist in 1,210 encounters. The response from physicians who have used the ambient AI scribe service has been favorable; they cite the technology’s capability to facilitate more personal, meaningful, and effective patient interactions and to reduce the burden of after-hours clerical work. In addition, early assessments of patient feedback have been positive, with some describing improved interaction with their physicians. Early evaluation metrics, based on an existing tool that evaluates the quality of human-generated scribe notes, find that ambient AI use produces high-quality clinical documentation for physicians’ editing. Further statistical analyses after AI scribe implementation also find that usage is linked with reduced time spent in documentation and in the EHR. Ongoing enhancements of the technology are needed and are focused on direct EHR integration, improved capabilities for incorporating medical interpretation, and enhanced workflow personalization options for individual users. Despite this technology’s early promise, careful and ongoing attention must be paid to ensure that the technology supports clinicians while also optimizing ambient AI scribe output for accuracy, relevance, and alignment in the physician–patient relationship.

«Нашу семью называли в городе “благословенной семьей”…» (к биографии Александра Николаевича Пыпина)

The work deals with the questions of the biography of the outstanding Russian scientist-humanitarian, academician of the Imperial Academy of Sciences A. N. Pypin (1833–1904). The purpose of the study is to identify and summarize materials about the Saratov period of the scientist’s life, to present the history of his family, to reveal the role of his father and mother in intellectual and spiritual development. The study of a wide range of memoirs, documentary and epistolary sources resulted in establishing that the history of the noble family of the Pypins dates back to 1791. The ancestors on the father’s side, N. D. Pypin, were clerical workers, on the side of the mother A.E. Golubeva they were priests. It is shown that A. N. Pypin was brought up in a religious family, with high moral ideals, in the atmosphere of love and care. The role of parents in the formation of his humanitarian interests is significant. It is noted that the love of books and reading that distinguished Alexander Nikolaevich from an early age came from his family, from his mother, and was a natural necessity for all younger family members. Parents formed a picture of the world of their son by various means. If the mother did so through literature, primary educational knowledge, then the father formed it by means of contact with real life. He introduced his son to the world of peasant life, of serfdom. According to the scientist, N. D. and A. E. Pypins had a significant impact on the formation of his personality, influenced the choice of life priorities. The paper publishes for the first time the primary source about the birth of A. N. Pypin, the record in the metrical book of Saratov Church of the Holy Saviour, the formulary lists of his great-grandfather, grandfather and father.

The Invisible Burden: How Clerical Work Silently Hampers Effective Teaching and Learning

This article explores the often-overlooked yet vital role of clerical work in shaping the education system. It delves into the intricate relationship between clerical tasks and education, examining their merits and demerits within the framework of social and developmental concerns for teachers and students. The shifting landscape of education has expanded the role of teachers to encompass administrative responsibilities, such as data analysis, record-keeping, scheduling, and communication. However, the increasing burden of clerical work has been found to hinder the teaching process and negatively impact student learning, resulting in less time for lesson planning, individualized attention, and cultivating a positive learning environment. This article also highlights the social and developmental implications of excessive clerical work, including the barrier it creates to building strong student-teacher relationships and hindering students’ holistic development. While clerical tasks are essential for a functioning school system, prioritizing them over core teaching responsibilities can have detrimental effects on the overall educational ecosystem. The article emphasizes the need for a balanced approach that values both administrative efficiency and quality teaching to ensure the fostering of well-educated and socially responsible citizens. Additionally, it explores the specific clerical tasks undertaken by teachers, such as record-keeping, lesson planning, administrative tasks, assessment and grading, as well as the role of special needs teachers in individualized support and collaboration. The article concludes by acknowledging the challenges of finding a balance between efficient administration and quality teaching within the Zimbabwean education system, emphasizing the crucial role of teachers in nurturing young minds and promoting social and emotional development among future generations.

Pancreatic cancer mortality in South Africa: A case-control study

Background. There are variations in the numbers of pancreatic cancer deaths reported annually in South Africa (SA). Since pancreatic cancer deaths in SA from 1997 to 2016, the number of cases has hugely increased, and reached 23 581 in both sexes. Sex differences are likely to contribute to the variations in the strength of associations between the risk factors and pancreatic cancer mortality. Objective. To identify factors associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer mortality in SA. Methods. A matched case-control study with 1:1 matching was conducted using data collected by Statistics SA from 1997 to 2016. Controls were randomly selected to be as similar as possible to the cases, and matched by age, sex and year of death. Conditional logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with pancreatic cancer mortality. Results. This case-control study comprised a final selection of 23 581 cases (12 171 males and 11 410 females) and 23 581 controls (12 171 males and 11 410 females). A significantly increased risk of pancreatic cancer mortality was observed among males who were managers (odds ratio (OR) 2.99; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.36 - 6.60; p=0.006) and craft and related trade workers (OR 1.89; 95% CI 1.14 - 3.14; p=0.013). Elevated risks of pancreatic cancer mortality were also found among females who were managers (OR 6.13; 95% CI 1.32 - 28.52; p=0.021), professionals (OR 2.12; 95% CI 1.24 - 3.63; p=0.006), clerical support workers (OR 3.78; 95% CI 1.79 - 7.98; p=0.001) and elementary occupation workers (OR 1.41; 95% CI 0.99 - 2.00; p=0.059). Smoking was significantly associated with pancreatic cancer mortality in females (OR 1.36; 95% CI 1.02 - 1.82; p=0.039). Working in several occupations was associated with an increased risk of pancreatic cancer mortality in males (OR 1.31; 95% CI 1.01 - 1.71; p=0.045) and females (OR 1.66; 95% CI 1.30 - 2.12; p<0.001). Conclusion. Smoking and certain occupations increased the risk of pancreatic cancer mortality. Further research is needed to evaluate the associations between other extrinsic and intrinsic factors and pancreatic cancer mortality.

“Light of Clarity”: M.N. Muravyov and His Project of the Provincial Governments Reform

The article examines the project of the reform of provincial government and, in general, the local government system, proposed by M.N. Muravyov in 1843. Summarizing his rich gubernatorial experience, Muravyov saw the reason for the slowness and ineffective work of provincial boards in the excessive bureaucratization of their work, the huge fl ow of papers, as well as the loss of control and audit functions in relation to lower departments. The methods proposed by Muravyov for solving those problems can be reduced to three main principles: 1) It is necessary to establish fast and effi cient clerical work; 2) The provincial administration is obliged to exercise vigilant and strict control over both the progress of “paper work” and the offi cials themselves, promptly punishing them for slowness; 3) In order for the bureaucratic machine to work smoothly and without failures, strict administrative centralization is necessary. Muravyov's proposals, however, were not heard, and the reform of provincial governments carried out in 1845, failed to overcome the old systemic vices