Classical Sociological Theory Research Articles

Quantum Superposition/Social Superposition and Classic Sociological Theory

This effort suggests that the Quantum physics concept of Superposition (Superposition suggests that any two states can be combined as one, becoming one distinct state) has had a profound effect on early sociological classic theory. Therefore, in response to the increased application of Quantum Superposition in the development of classical sociological theory, this effort has referred to this adaptation as “Social Superposition”. Defined “Social Superposition” is a Sociological Theory having two social states combined and layered as one. However, when one social state is observed, a new and unique social state emerges, social change has occurred.

A multiplicidade das novas abordagens sobre uma educação escolar emancipatória no âmbito da Sociologia da Educação

Este estudo tem por objetivo análise de algumas vertentes da produção sociológica sobre educação que se esboçou em países como Inglaterra, França e Estados Unidos. Partindo de diferentes perspectivas, autores como Michael Young, Basil Bernstein, Pierre Bourdieu, Michael Apple e Henry Giroux impulsionaram as reflexões deste campo ao enfrentarem questões as relações entre linguagem, ensino e conhecimento no processo educacional e a importância de uma concepção crítica e emancipatória da formação escolar, estabelecendo um novo parâmetro para as reflexões já esboçadas no âmbito da teoria sociológica clássica sobre a educação. Apesar da dificuldade na formulação de novas categorias gerada pelo recorte macrossociológico, esta produção teve a qualidade de fomentar criticamente discussões sobre a aplicabilidade das diversas matrizes da teoria social que inspiraram as reflexões sobre os processos educacionais a partir da segunda metade do século XX.

Between facts and wills: Tönnies, Durkheim, and the sociological critique of modern obligation

This article explores the relation between Durkheim and Tönnies’ sociological thinking. Instead of focusing on their divergences, it shows how the content of their mutual criticisms, before being naturalized in national sociological traditions, reveals a shared epistemological aim: to rethink modern moral and political obligation via sociological theory. From this perspective, the opposition between Durkheim’s social fact and Tönnies’ social will reveals how classical sociological theory has been engaged in a general critisicm of modern natural law in order to furnish a different understanding of modern poltical concepts, in particular of the notion of state.

Book Review: Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings, 3rd ed.

Book Review: <i>Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory: Text and Readings</i>, 3rd ed.

The third sector of R&amp;D: literature review, basic analysis, and research agenda

Abstract The third sector of national innovation systems comprises non-academic, publicly owned R&amp;D organizations that complement universities and private-sector firms and are normally called ‘research institutes’. Scholarly attention to these organizations has been scarce, partly a consequence of the theoretical imbalance in favor of conceptualizations of innovation processes as requiring mainly universities, private-sector firms, and governmental authorities to occur and succeed. Similarly, while this third sector often makes up a significant share of national innovation systems, it receives less attention in national research and innovation policy than do, say, universities. This paper argues that the role(s) and function(s) of third sector research institutes deserve to be mapped and analyzed in greater detail in order to understand how various organizational actors interact to produce innovation. From a comprehensive literature review and basic analysis of three institute groups in three Nordic countries, the paper makes a first preliminary analysis of the topic. While this analysis yields some interesting conclusions, its main function is to point the way for future studies. In these, other actors in the system should be investigated in thorough empirical studies, armed with tools from classic sociological systems theory that enhance the conceptual strength of the innovation systems framework and enable the acknowledgement of the role(s) and function(s) of several important organizational actors, not least research institutes.

Popular religions and multiple modernities

Religious diversity and pluralism is increasing in Latin America. The religious field that was some decades ago totally Catholic has changed radically. Not only Pentecostalism or NeoPentecostalism but other Evangelicals as well as independent churches of various denominations and forms, non-affiliated people and many diverse (ethnic, afro-American , New Age, etc.) and diffuse religious expressions are growing. The main argument of this paper is that this religious changes toward pluralism can be fully understood in the context of multiple modernities theory, provided that it be revised and modified. A new sociological approach is needed. The classical sociological concepts and theories, beginning with secularization, must be criticized and replaced with a more complex theoretical view. Latin American historical processes must be compared with what is happening in other regions of the world and not only with the West. World religions are answering each one by their own path to multiple interactions with modernities. The key understanding of changes must come from a better insight of popular religions worldwide. Latin American, Eastern Asia, Islam regions, are good examples of popular forms of religious revitalization that contrasts with the Northern European case. They put in evidence the fact that new ways of producing sense and spiritual search in non-Western geo-cultural areas are framing specific relationships between religion and modernities and bringing about new religious pluralisms.

Behind the Veil: The Strategic Use of Religious Garb

There is anecdotal evidence that since the late 20th century young, educated, and urban Muslim women veil more frequently and strictly. Does this imply that the classical sociological theories of religion, which predict that modernization should cause a decrease in religious behaviours, do not apply to Islam? We investigate this question using structural equation modelling to analyse three datasets, one from Turkey, one covering 25 Muslim countries, and one from Belgium where Muslims are a minority. We find that averagely religious women conform to the classical theories’ predictions. But among highly religious women the modernizing forces—education, occupation and higher income, urban living, and contacts with non-Muslims—increase veiling. We conjecture that for highly religious women modernizing factors raise the risk and temptation in women's environments that imperil their reputation for modesty: veiling would then be a strategic response, a form either of commitment to prevent the breach of religious norms or of signalling women’s piety to their communities. Our findings have implications for cultural policy and Muslim integration in Europe.

Teorias institucionais aplicadas aos estudos de sistemas agroindustriais no contexto do agronegócio café: uma análise conceitual

In this article, the classic institutional theories will be revisited, systematizing a conceptual analysis to be applied to studies of agribusiness systems in the coffee business context. Based on the analysis of institutional theories, the historical context of the institutional environment of the coffee agribusiness system in Brazil took place, emphasizing the collective actions of the Federation of the Cerrado Coffee Growers (FCC). From this context, it was shown that the new institutional economics from the aspect of transaction costs economy produces an analysis of these strategies consistent production systems from the conceptual point of view and that the new institutional sociology presents different approaches another perspective. It is proposed the combination of the classics of new economic sociology to classical sociological theory of social capital as a possibility for the enrichment of the theoretical discussion of this topic. A comparative table was proposed to the applicability of institutional theories to the study of SAG's. Finally, a set of points for reflections and guiding questions for further studies were made.

Taboo desires, creativity, and career choice

Two studies suggest that Protestants are more likely than Catholics or Jews to sublimate taboo desires into motives to pursue creative careers. The results are consistent with a synthesis of psychological and classic sociological theories. In Study 1, Protestants induced to have taboo sexual desires were likely to express a preference for creative careers (as opposed to prosocial ones). In Study 2, a national probability sample revealed that “conflicted” Protestants—who had taboo desires but tried to rule their sexual behavior according to their religious beliefs—worked in the most creative jobs. The effects in both studies did not hold for Catholics and Jews. Results suggest that intrapsychic conflict can partially motivate important real-world decisions, such as the choice to pursue a creative career.

Conceptualizing specialized psychosocial consulting for persons with epilepsy

Straipsnio tikslas – aprašyti ir pagrįsti specializuoto psichosocialinio konsultavimo koncepciją, atskleidžiant epilepsijos kaip ligos apibrėžtis klasikinėse sociologijos ir egzistencinės teorijos perspektyvose bei neįgaliųjų teisių aspektu. Straipsnyje analizuojami sergančiųjų epilepsija socialinio gyvenimo apribojimai ir galimybės; sąveikos su socialiniu darbuotoju aspektai, turintys reikšmės neįgaliųjų dalyvavimo visuomenės gyvenime plėtrai.

ЭВОЛЮЦИЯ ПРЕДСТАВЛЕНИЙ О ЗДОРОВЬЕ В КЛАССИЧЕСКИХ СОЦИОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ТЕОРИЯХ

ЭВОЛЮЦИЯ ПРЕДСТАВЛЕНИЙ О ЗДОРОВЬЕ В КЛАССИЧЕСКИХ СОЦИОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ ТЕОРИЯХ

(Management of the Social Capital of the Professional Community)

Russian Abstract: Профессиональные сообщества представляют собой одни из тех промежуточных организаций, которые объединяют членов общества. Они обеспечивают единство действия и социальной сплоченности без непосредственного контакта с его членами. Они помещены в социальной структуре между отдельным специалистом и профессией, с одной стороны, и между специалистом и социальным окружением, с другой. Таким образом, они являются субъектами управления как отдельными профессионалами, так и профессиями в целом. Важной функцией сообществ как субъектов управления с различными интересами является обеспечение двустороннего канала для коммуникации. Конец XX века ознаменовал собой новую революцию в коммуникации, что должно было сказаться и на функциональных аспектах профессиональных сообществ. Впрочем, расхождения между классическими социологическими теориями началось до роста влияния информационных сетей.English Abstract: Professional communities are one of those intermediate organizations that unite members of society. They provide unity of action and social cohesion without direct contact with its members. They are placed in the social structure between individual professionals and the profession, on the one hand, and between professional and social environment on the other. Thus, they are subject to control by individual professionals and profession as a whole. An important function of communities as subjects of management with different interests is to provide two-way channel for communication. The end of the XX century marked a new revolution in communications, which should have an effect on the functional aspects of communities. However, the differences between classical sociological theories began to influence the growth of information networks.

Yuen Thompson, B.Covered in Ink: Tattoos, Women and the Politics of the Body. New York and London: New York University Press. 2015218pp £58 (hbk) £16.99 (pbk). ISBN: 978‐0‐8147‐8920‐9

What is it like to be a heavily tattooed woman in contemporary America? Bringing a keen sociological eye with a symbolic interaction approach, Covered in Ink draws on interviews with 65 women to attend to this expansive question. With recognition that tattoos have become increasingly popular, this monograph traces the way in which a history of stigma combines with gender propriety policing in relation to the everyday lives of extensively tattooed women and/or women tattooists. The book is premised on a distinction of heavy tattooing as opposed to that which is lighter, in terms of design, bodily location and/or extent of coverage. ‘Crossing the line’ to heavy tattooing and the degree of subsequent social sanctioning often experienced by women are mentioned in the introduction chapter. Here, Yuen Thompson opens up about her own history of acquiring tattoos and negotiating their multi-faceted presence. In doing so, a number of themes are signposted to which Covered in Ink addresses, namely how and why some kinds of tattoo presence can be physically and socially transformative for their female owners/wearers. Covered in Ink both draws on a number of insights from previous literature, on tattooing generally and tattooed women specifically, whilst building on these with fascinating and insightful discussions. The first thematic chapter provides context to the lingering stigma around tattoos whilst chapter 2 addresses why this is particularly of concern for tattooed women. The book is attentive to different social relationships and spaces – ranging from the interactions and responses of family members, romantic partners, work colleagues/customers in the workplace (which may be fellow tattooists), and members of the general public encountered in various locations. The visibility of the body and way in which tattoos are (mis)read is explored by Yuen Thompson who acknowledges the tendency for ‘non-tattooed individuals […] [to] assume that ink is acquired specifically for the attention’ (p. 151). Clearly, as Covered in Ink demonstrates, naïve ignorance by non-tattooed others does not warrant disapproving comments, glares, invasive questioning, dismissal from employment, avoidance or unwanted touch/grabbing. Yet, as becomes apparent, such stigmatising treatment in various forms are remarkably repetitive occurrences across the experiences of the women interviewed, many of whom develop particular covering-up strategies and stock answers in response. Responding to such a broad question about the social lives of heavily tattooed women, the book covers a great deal yet it is inevitably unable to cover everything. The author recognises that there are omissions, including that more attention could have been paid to the nuances of racial difference in heavily tattooed women's experiences. Another aspect which I was surprised to find absent was that of ‘alternative’ beauty modelling and, relatedly, the success of websites/brands such as SuicideGirls. Nonetheless, there are tenets of this discussion within the book which could be drawn together for this purpose. For example, the book includes chapters on beauty culture and work place interactions, photographs of professional models and a Miss Tattoo pageant, a recounted story from one participant at a car show, and recognition of the sexualised imagery of women in tattoo magazines. There remain such fascinating discussions yet to be drawn out from the themes of the book. However, I do not see this as a weakness but rather it points to the richness of the topics addressed. Covered in Ink is full of seeds for future consideration – for example, my fascination was sparked by the brief comments on similarities regarding the public scrutiny and uninvited touch of pregnant women akin to that of heavily tattooed women. One avenue for future research would be to explore how these two embodiments might be simultaneously lived. What are the experiences of pregnant heavily tattooed women and how do they negotiate an array of possible meanings read from, and imposed upon, their bodies? Whilst this book will certainly be of particular interest to body modification scholars, especially those approaching the topic from a feminist angle, it speaks to a range of broader themes and audiences. The empirical context of heavily tattooed women's lives and classic sociological theories are brought together to reflect on one another in Covered in Ink, making it of interest to those in sociology, criminology, law, anthropology and, as I myself identify, social geography. In addition, Covered in Ink has important messages for those outside of academia – whether these are employers, established tattooists, tattooed peers, and/or the general public regarding the supportive and respectful treatment of heavily tattooed women. The final chapter and conclusion outlines a ‘tattoo etiquette’ which, if heeded, would ease the economic, social, emotional, and psychological difficulties that many such women encounter, anticipate and navigate in their lives.

Indeksy hybrydowe w grach oceanicznych, czyli racjonalny tłum w strukturze ideologicznej

This paper aims to present a theoretical concept that allows to investigate decision-making in large and ideologically differentiated bodies. Former models of oceanic games were based on the assumption of equal disposition to cooperate with other players among all voters. It is impossible to hold this assumption in a political reality. The paper develops the concept of hybrid power indices for oceanic games. Oceanic games with a partial homogeneity structure are analysed in the paper. The paper is the result of my previous studies of decision-making processes in large assemblies and my efforts in modelling ideological differentiation in political bodies. The paper also shows that presented formal models have solid foundations in classical sociological theories. The last part presents several convenient and reliable sociological interpretations of the models as well as my plans for future studies using the models described.

John Rex's main mistake

Science progresses by the discovery and correction of mistakes in the interpretation of data. John Rex sought ‘to distinguish among the various studies made by sociologists those which are distinguishable as race relations studies’. He examined them from the standpoint of classical sociological theory. His main mistake was his continued but unsuccessful attempt to synthesize two quite different kinds of sociological knowledge. He underestimated the importance of differences in the criteria for the validation of causal explanation and for the projection of historical trends.

Toward a New Predictive Model of Student Retention in Higher Education

Theoretical models designed to predict whether students will persist or not have been valuable tools for retention efforts relative to the creation of services in academic and student affairs. Some of the early models attempted to explain and measure factors in the college dropout process. For example, in his seminal work, Tinto defined retention as a longitudinal process incorporating both the academic potential of the student and institutional social systems, thus creating a directional model based on continual variance in social commitments that influence academic performance. Others expanded the earlier theoretical models to test the predictive capabilities of these models using logistical regression and structural equation modeling to project college retention rates. As public sectors push for performance-based accountability in federal and state agencies, higher education funding becomes directly linked to academic performance. Critics of performance-based accountability in higher education contend that these funding structures undermine the mission of the university system and negatively impact retention in higher education. As Astin suggested, the structure of the American college system is a great deal more complex than the elementary concept of supply side economics. Additionally, due to globalization and aggressive progress in information technology, a shift from labor-intensive, information-age economies to a knowledge-based economy has created competing forces between academic and social integration in retention efforts. As intensity increases toward developing global knowledge-based economies, latent functions providing the framework for the process of learning (social integration, social control, and social change) give way to the manifest functions that reduce education to a process in which individuals merely collect information for future dissemination. Decades of research indicate that the role of education is not merely transmission of information. Higher education prompts progressive social changes that are augmented not only by dissemination of knowledge but also by the interconnectedness of the college experience, socialization process, and discovery of self in terms of place. A new conceptual model, grounded in classical sociological theory, is necessary to accommodate a knowledge-based economy. Universities must incorporate protective factors that generate a resilient environment for student learning, adaptation, and retention. Expanding the retention models of Spady and Tinto enhances the predictability of conceptual models for a new paradigm that fully recognizes the relationships among external factors (national and educational climate), internal factors (institutional culture and climate), and adaptive factors (sense of place) that effect voluntary dropout decisions in higher education.

Ulrich Beck and classical sociological theory

Ulrich Beck and classical sociological theory

The border between intimacy and anonymity in innocuous action: The greeting as a social form

In response to Freud’s notion that large things reveal themselves in small indications, this article analyses the greeting as a social form, using the resources of classical sociological theory and particularly the works of Simmel and Durkheim. The focus in not upon external aspects of the content studied, say, the difference between war as a macro-event and coquetry as a micro-event, nor on the social organisation of the event as an orderly phenomenon, but on the collective representation and its unstated configuration of layered meanings that discloses a tension in modern life around the enigma of acknowledgement. The example allows us to bring together a focus on language and embodiment through analysis of the gesture. In particular, the greeting raises the problem of the ambiguous relationship of intimacy and anonymity that haunts modernity. The method is illustrated through an analysis of the cliché as a circuit of commonplace representations and then traced as a narrative to disclose its form as mirroring a fundamental problem for the social actor’s relationship to the gesture of acknowledgement as a problem of self-worth.

SOCIOLOGY AND THE THEORY OF DOUBLE CONSCIOUSNESS

AbstractIn this paper we emphasize W. E. B. Du Bois’s relevance as a sociological theorist, an aspect of his work that has not received the attention it deserves. We focus specifically on the significance of Du Bois’s theory of Double Consciousness. This theory argues that in a racialized society there is no true communication or recognition between the racializing and the racialized. Furthermore, Du Bois’s theory of Double Consciousness puts racialization at the center of the analysis of self-formation, linking the macro structure of the racialized world with the lived experiences of racialized subjects. We develop our argument in two stages: The first section locates the theory of Double Consciousness within the field of classical sociological theories of the self. We show how the theory addresses gaps in the theorizing of self-formation of James, Mead, and Cooley. The second section presents an analysis of how Du Bois deploys this theory in his phenomenological analysis of the African American experience. The conclusions point out how the theory of Double Consciousness is relevant to contemporary debates in sociological theory.

«ПРОЕКТ СПАСЕНИЯ СОЦИОЛОГИИ» В АКТОРНО-СЕТЕВОЙ ТЕОРИИ Б. ЛАТУРА

The actor network theory (ANT) developed by the French sociologist Bruno Latour holds an exceptional position as it argues against almost all classical and modern sociological approaches. It may appear that ANT aims to deconstruct the sociological knowledge by dismissing such notions as “society” or “social”. However, the detailed examination results in opposite conclusions. The criticism of the representatives o f t he traditional sociology against ANT does not explain the world we live in. Latour acts as someone who tries to save sociology as a science; and ANT is a step towards reviving the notion of “the social” in its original meaning. Latour highlights that «reassembling the social» is the resumption of the work of the sociologists of the social that was stopped; he remarks that the ANT`s challenge is not to prove the invalidity of the classical sociological theories. The sociology salvation project proposed by ANT embraces the basic problems that the traditional sociology faces and puts forward ways of solution.