Classical Poems Research Articles

The ʿAyniyyah of Abū Dhuʾayb al-Hudhalī: The Achievement of a Classical Arabic Allegorical Form

Abstract This paper aims to examine the renowned Early Islamic elegy, the ʿAyniyyah of the Mukhaḍram poet Abū Dhuʾayb al-Hudhalī in two respects. First, it examines the poem as an entirely unconventional example of a Classical Arabic elegiac poem (rithāʾ) in terms of its thematic structure of introductory lament to the poet’s dead sons followed by three panels: the onager, the oryx and knightly combat. It concludes that the tragic endings of all three panels constitute a dramatic inversion of the triumphal outcomes of such thematic panels in the pre-Islamic qaṣīdah in a manner that reflects al-Jāḥiẓ’s structural insights into the semantic functions of the animal panels in both elegy and qaṣīdah. Second, the paper explores the allegorical aspect of the thematic sections of the poem, the elegiac lament and the three tragic panels, in order to argue that they are a key to understanding the allegorical dimensions of such panels in the Early Arabic qaṣīdah tradition. The paper next explores Arabic critical terminology for the Western term “allegory,” such as tamthīl, umthūlah and majāz, only to conclude that none of them are adequate. Building especially on ʿAbd al-Qāhir al-Jurjānī’s proper understanding of majāz, the paper finally proposes a new etymologically and semantically sound neologism as an Arabic critical term for allegory: umjūzah.

Shanshui Poetry and Painting in Forming Outbound Tourists’ Perception of Destination Personality: A Netnographic Examination

Classical poetry and landscape painting are important traditional Chinese cultural associations and carriers of Chinese shanshui culture. This study reports the findings derived from examining their roles in forming the perceived destination personality held by Chinese tourists to Hokkaido. Based on a content and thematic analysis of tourists written accounts posted on online travel sharing community, the research reveals that classical poems and landscape painting take the roles of expressive vehicle of viewed scenery and lyric means to express tourists’ emotion and thought. They also exhibit Chinese tourists’ aesthetic interest in the feminine destination attributes. Findings of this research offer implications to destination marketing organizations (DMOs) to promote their Chinese marketing strategy through crafting culture-specific marketing messages and properly communicating with its target market.

A Comparative Study of Chinese Translations of Keats’s To Autumn Under “Three Beauties Theory”

Xu Yuanchong, a Chinse professional translator, firstly proposes “Three Beauties Theory” in poetry translation. After a lot of practical application, the theory mainly focusing on the beauty in sense, beauty in sound and beauty in form has become a guide for poetry translation. As one of John Keats’s most classic poems, To Autumn is full of beauties in sense, sound and form. It has many translations of this poem in China, among which Mu Dan’s and Tu An’s translations selected in this paper are wildly adopted in China. This paper explores three beauties of poetry translation through a comparative study of the merits and inadequacies of the two translations in reproducing three beauties of the original in hope of helping readers better appreciate the artist appeal of To Autumn and promoting cultural exchange between China and the West.

செவ்விலக்கியக் கவிதைகளில் யாப்பு முறைமைகள் : தமிழ் மற்றும் அரபிக் கவிதைகளை முன்வைத்து

The Prosodical rules should be followed properly in the composition of Classical Rhymed poems/ verses in Tamil and Arabic. In both these classical languages, Tamil and Arabic; there are set of Prosodical rules. In the Prosodical elements namely syllable, poetic word pattern and stanza, we found unique similarities in both these classical poems. The aim of this article is to throw light on the similarities found in these Prosodical elements of classical Arabic and Tamil Poems.

Authorship and Unity of the Classical Arabic Poem through the Lens of Collaborative Composition

Abstract When a classical Arabic poem lacked a noticeable degree of thematic coherence and formal structure, it was at risk of foreign intervention aiming to improve it. Who was recognized in such a case as the author of the poem and on which grounds? This article looks at the interrelated questions of the poem’s unity and its authorship through the lens of collaborative poetry that was practiced by completing verse composed in the past. It presents an analysis of poetic collaboration cases from the second/eighth century to the Ayyubid era, and discusses different practical approaches of poets to authorship questions related to the earlier source poem and their own later completion. In the third/ninth century, as an expansive reservoir of ancient and modern poems became increasingly available, we occasionally notice the marks of plagiary, rather than forgery, on collaborative poems of this type. At the same time, and based on this very expansion, kinds of legitimate poetic influence can be detected in the completions of the later poets. Remarkably, poetic intervention did not cease and the poem conceptually did not achieve an inviolable status, when the scholars replaced the transmitters as the authorities on poetry around the third/ninth century and throughout the period under study. Nevertheless, the cultural domain for reshaping earlier verse changed, and the repertoire of poetry considered as “fair game” for this practice was narrowed down based on quality considerations.

‘More than mortal fervour’: Patriotism and Democracy in John Thelwall's Epic The Hope of Albion

John Thelwall published extracts from his epic fragment The Hope of Albion (1801) during an unprecedented revival of epic poetry in Britain. The revival saw writers from across the political spectrum promoting various ideas of national identity and examining Britain's developing role as an imperial power. This article positions Thelwall's fragment alongside poems of his contemporaries, including epics by Joseph Cottle and Henry James Pye (both titled Alfred and published in 1800 and 1801). Examining how Thelwall differently revises tropes from classical and Miltonic poems, I argue that he uses the epic genre to explore how the nation could be transformed as an answer to tyranny and oppression. At the same time, formal tensions in the poem suggest the limitations of the very hope that comprises Thelwall's subject.

The Translatability of Revolution: Guo Moruo and Twentieth-Century Chinese Culture

The Translatability of Revolution: Guo Moruo and Twentieth-Century Chinese Culture

Строфическая форма мухаммас в азербайджанской лирике ХХ века

In Azerbaijan literature of the early 20th century mukhammas were created, they were distinguished by the search for new forms and the problematic range. For example, Sabir began mukhammas with beit (couplets) of tarji, repeated it at the end of each stanza. Many other poets repeated a similar technique afterwards. There are other features of the mukhammas of the specified period; the topic in general covered lyric and poetic, patriotic, social and political, philosophical, and religious issues. The patriotic mukhammas included a description of the nature beauties, the motherland defenders courage, the impulses of those who strove for the progress of the country, for its freedom. The number of satirical mukhammas increased. Takhmis (imitations) were written on classical poems, including Fuzuli’s ghazals. At the early 20th century in Azerbaijan, as well as in other places of the Russian Empire, political activity grew among the population. The famous poet Mahammad Hadi wrote in his mukhammas about the need to achieve freedom. After all, only free people can achieve true progress and prosperity. In Soviet times, a number of poets continued to write their poems in the classical style. Poets such as V. Abbaszade Hammal, M.S. Ordubadi, A. Nazmi, Mikayil Rafili, Ali Nazim, Suleiman Rustam, Mikayil Mushfig praised their native land in their mukhammas, at the same time they did not forget to note the role of the Communist Party in the prosperity of the country. A lot of poems were devoted to international events, criticism of the imperialist forces. During World War II, Aliaga Vahid in his mukhammas predicted German fascism an inevitable defeat, expressed admiration for the heroism of Soviet soldiers. In the second half and at the end of the 20th century, the number of mukhammas on religious themes is growing in Azerbaijan poetry. A number of poets have moved from writing poetry in the classical nazm style to the mukhammas genre.

Semantic Deviation in Classical Poem Interpretation: A Perspective from Beginning Training Course Students in TEFL

Manipulation of language used in poems to state poet’s idea is basically aimed to give aesthetic value, help the readers to easily understand, and give complete image of the text meaning. However, in a real application in the classroom, the language style in poems causes language deviation and covers the poet’s idea. Readers should read the poems explisitly in deep interpretation to get the meaning. Therefore, this study describes an eight-week (135 minutes a week) poem stylistics of semantic deviation analysis for a half –semester beginning training course (poetry class) for the use of literature in an EFL context. The research was conducted at the fourth semester students of English Program of IAIN Bengkulu in academic year 2017/2018 that consisted of 31 students. This descriptive analysis aimed to describe students’ exploration of semantic deviation in classical poem interpretation. The result showed that Wordsworth’s The Solitary Reaper used various kinds of semantic deviation in forms of language stylistics of figurative languages, namely: (1) semantic Bizarreness of expression that consisted of oxymoron and paradox; (2) transference of meaning that consisted of synecdoche, metonymy and metaphor; (3) Misrepresent the truth that consisted of hyperbole and irony. In a real analysis of the poem, the students were excellent in identyfying the kinds of language deviations. Then, they were very good at understanding the poem literally. However, they had problems in interpreting the poet’s real meaning through semantic deviation used in the poem because they needed more experience about lingistic, social and historical background knowledge of classical England, and biography of the poet.

Niemodlitewne modlitwy Krasińskiego

<p>Przedmiotem pracy Niemodlitewne modlitwy Krasińskiego jest grupa utworów poety które, mimo że spełniają cechy strukturalne tego gatunku, w rzeczywistości modlitwami nie są. Mamy tu bowiem do czynienia z użyciem tej formy literackiej do innych celów. I tak np. Daj jej o Panie… to z jednej strony swoisty instruktarz dla ukochanej, jak postępować w trudnych biograficznie sytuacjach, a z drugiej strony traktat filozoficzno-religijny. Boże, wysłuchaj modlitwę moją serdeczną… to z kolei klasyczny erotyk kierowany do Joanny Bobrowej. O Boże, błogosław tym… to natomiast swego rodzaju gest kurtuazyjnej wdzięczności wobec rodziny Ankwiczów, połączony z osobistą i dość oryginalną fantazją o końcu świata. Artykuł ten ujawnia zarówno świadomość genologiczną Krasińskiego w zakresie modlitwy poetyckiej, jak też jego postawę religijną.</p>

고전시가에 표출된 ‘달’ 이미지 비교를 통한 한국 고전문학사 교육 방법 - 중국인 고급 학습자를 대상으로 -

Journal of the International Network for Korean Language and Culture 16-2, 65-92. The study aims to present a way to teach Korean classical literature history to advanced Chinese learners by comparing images of the “moon” as expressed in classical poetry. The image is based on the literary customs of the poetic genre or the cultural characteristics of the period. The time-honored examination of images of the same object in a work is meaningful, in that classical poetry can be a consistent glimpse into the cultural background, or the flow of literary history, inherent in the work. This is because even within the same culture, there is a difference in the imagery of objects that change according to time. The following are examples of “moon” imagery that the classical poem e mbodies. In Hyangga, the imagery of “sublime” is prominent, in terms of shamanistic, religious, spiritual, and personal aspects. In Goryeo song, the sentiments of the poetic speaker were projected. In Sijo, it becomes a space-time background of solitude, a key element of the enjoyment found in reading and writing poetry in the bright moonlight and breeze, and a symbol of one’s lover. The teaching method, examined in this study, begins with discovering the differences in imagery by comparing various poems. Thereafter, the expression methods of the imagery are compared. In assessing these variances between texts, Chinese learners can discover how this imagery, and literary consciousness, has changed over time. Ultimately, Chinese learners will be able to consider trends in Korean classical literature history. (Seoul National University)

On the English Translation of Color Words in Tang Poetry

<p>The color word “青” frequently appears in Tang poetry and is deeply loved by poets because of its ambiguity. However, the multiple meanings of “青" also bring difficulties to translation activities. What color does it mean? Thus, from the perspective of Relevance Theory, this study discusses the three basic meanings of the color word "青", taking as examples the misunderstood words that contain "青” in several classical poems by Li Bai. To achieve the accurate translation of the color word “青", the key is to achieve the optimal relevance, and thus the greatest contextual effect can be obtained.</p>

The influence of Thirukkural in Seeni Naina Muhammad’s Poems

The poet Seeni Naina Mohammed is a renowned and respectable poet in Malaysia. In the world of classical poems, he established a name for himself and he is a literary legend who observed the society in which he lived. The anthology of poetry Thenkudu was published in the year 2011, which comprises more than 200 classical poems that have been written by him from 1958 to 2011.The influence of Thirukkural has been found in many poems which are included in the anthology of poetry. A literature which has key concept, principle, grammar, structure, etc. akin to another literature that appeared at an earlier time period, in any one of the above mentioned aspects. The comparative literature studies have found that, the literature which doesn’t have any semblance with the previous literature and having entirely newly created literature has been ignored by the literary principles of that particular language. This study is based on ‘The Concept of Influence’ which is the part of comparative studies and the aim of this article is to study the influence of Thirukkural, written in post-sangam age, in key concept found in the anthology of poetry Thenkudu, written in the modern age.   Key Words: Theory Influence, Thirukkural, poetry Thenkudu, grammar, literary principles   ஆய்வுச்சுருக்கம்   செ.சீனி நைனா முகம்மது மலேசியத் திருநாட்டின் மதிப்புறு கவிஞர். மரபு கவிதை உலகில் தனக்கென ஓரிடத்தை நிலை நிறுத்திக்கொண்ட இவர், தான்வாழும் சமூகத்தை உற்று நோக்கிய ஒரு படைப்பாளியாவார்.1958 முதல் 2011ஆம் ஆண்டு வரை இவர் எழுதிய 200க்கும் மேற்பட்ட மரபு கவிதைகள் அடங்கிய தேன்கூடு எனும் கவிதைத்தொகுப்பு நூல் 2011ஆம் ஆண்டு வெளியீடு கண்டது. இக்கவிதைத்தொகுப்பில் இடம்பெற்றுள்ள பல கவிதைகளில் திருக்குறளின்  தாக்கம் காணப்படுகின்றது. ஓர் இலக்கியம் அதன் அடிக்கருத்து, உத்தி, யாப்பமைப்பு, புனைவுநிலை ஆகியவற்றில் அதற்கு முன்பு தோன்றிய மற்றொரு இலக்கியத்துடன் ஏதேனும் ஒரு வகையில் நெருங்கிய தொடர்பு கொண்டிருக்கும். இவ்வாறாகத் தனக்கு முந்தைய இலக்கியங்களில் தொடர்பில்லாமல் முற்றிலும் புதிதாகப் படைக்கப்படுகின்ற ஓர் இலக்கியத்தை அம்மொழியின் இலக்கிய மரபுகள் ஏற்றுக்கொள்ளாமல் புறக்கணித்துவிடுகின்றன என்பது ஒப்பிலக்கிய ஆய்வுகளின் மூலம் கண்டறியப்பட்டுள்ளது. ஒப்பிலக்கிய ஆய்வில் ஒரு பகுதியாக விளங்கும் ‘தாக்கக்கோட்பாடு’(Influence Theory) எனும் அணுகுமுறையின் அடிப்படையில், தற்காலத் தமிழிலக்கியமான தேன்கூடு  கவிதைத் தொகுப்பில் சங்கம் மருவிய காலத்தில் தோன்றிய திருக்குறளின் தாக்கம் அடிக்கருத்துச் சார்ந்தும் புனைவுநிலை சார்ந்தும் எவ்வகையில் ஒற்றுமை கொண்டுள்ளது என்பதை ஆராய்வதே இக்கட்டுரையின் நோக்கமாகும்.   குறிப்புச் சொற்கள்: தாக்கக்கோட்பாடு, திருக்குறள், தேன்கூடு கவிதைத் தொகுப்பு, யாப்பமைப்பு, இலக்கிய மரபுகள்

ROBERT BURNS’ PATRIARCHIC RESPONSE TO WIFE’S DOMINANCE OVER HUSBAND IN HIS POEM, THE HENPECKED HUSBAND (1788)

The Henpecked Husband is one of classic poems written by Robert Burns, a neoclassical poet. This poem overall tells about a man who lives under the dominance of his wife. It also contains the some (parts of) lines that represent his opinions about the situation, which tends to blame the couple for the situation. Given the author’s tendency in the writing a research was conducted, aimed at comprehending in detail the manifestations of woman’s (wife’) dominance over the husband in the poem and analyzing and classifying the poet’s opinions theory. To do this library research, gender feminist theory was employed, with primarily feminist concepts written by Rosemary Putnam Tong. Based on the research, there were some major findings. Firstly, there were some manifestations of wife’s dominance over the husband, i.e. in power relation, leadership, decision making, and family’s economy. Secondly, there were some expressions (lines) in the poem that showed the poet’s patriarchal response towards such dominances. 
 
 Keywords: patriarchal, wife’s dominance, gender, gender feminism

Zihaf Impact on music Activators of Hashu Lines of Kurdish classical poetry

The relation between the duration of time spend on the foot prosodies of Kurdish Classic poems and music is a direct relation, so any increase and decrease in the time ,due to prosody rules, will create upset, slowdown in rhythm and music of a line in a poem(verse). The change in time depends on a set of rules. These rules in the science of poetic meters (prosody) are called prosody changes and this paper will look at examples found in Zihaf and Ellals. It will discuss the change in the duration of time spent on foot prosodies and consists of an introduction, two parts and a conclusion. In the first part, prosody as a concept has been outlined. The number of foots, essentials of prosody, number of syllables, and arrangements of long and short foot prosody syllables are discussed. Furthermore, a short summary is provided on Zihaf and Ellals as well as their impacts. Moreover, by using “prat,” a software program to measure sound, after recording ten different readings and saving them in ten sound format files, the program managed to scientifically read the duration of time spent on the foots in addition to taking pictures of all essentials, Kurdish classic foots and high and low sound waves. In the second section of this article, the effects of types of Zihaf (Khubn, Tae, Qabz and kaf) and bauble Zihaf on the duration of time spend on foot prosody and their effect on the high and low of sound waves, slowing down of rhythm and music of foots are discussed.

On the English Translation of Culture-loaded Words in Qiang Jin Jiu

Qiang Jin Jiu, a classical poem created by one of the best ancient Chinese poets Li Bai, has more than one English version. Whether it is translated into a metrical verse or a free verse in English, the culture-loaded words in the poem have always been a major problem. For this reason, this study selects four English translations of metrical and freestyles respectively and sorts out the culture-loaded words that are easily misunderstood, aiming to find out the differences between the metrical and free verse translations through case studies to promote the out-going of Tang poetry.

金昌翕의 丹丘 유람과 문학적 형상화

Samyun(三淵) Kim Chang－heup(金昌翕, 1653－1722) laid the foundations for the formation and the enhancement of the true literature with realistic elements through sightseeing tours. It is presumed that the unique poetic style and the material shown in the poetic world of Kim Chang－heup would have been done in the process of effectively writing poems with the impressions inspired by the sightseeing tour. This paper examines the journey and classical Chinese poetry recording the progress and expression of when Kim Changheup at the age of 36 traveled to the Danyang(丹陽) area. Kim Chang－heup traveled to four districts such as Danyang, Jecheon, and Youngwol(寧越) to accompany Kim Chang－hyup who served as a prefecture governor of Chungpung when he went up to Seoul and returned to the place of his appointment in 1688 (King Sukjong 14 years). On this journey, Kim Changheup created the journey of “Dangu Diary” and 220 classical Chinese poems. In particular, the classical poems were organized and distributed with Dangulok. Through these works, you can confirm the reality of the excursion.BR Kim Chang－Heup impressively watched the journey going up the Han River by boat, detailing and recording the difficulties of the inspiration and the water way which had not been experienced before. Kim Chang－Heup accompanied 10 delegates including Chungju governor to the Dangu excursion. Kim Chang－Heup shared his fascination with the other people, by blowing the flute directly and getting a flavor of the journey, as an example. On the other hand, on the Yungwol excursion that he took alone, he becomes drenched in loneliness and sorrow. For this reason, he had mainly created works that revealed a pleasure from meditation in Jungbangsssa, where he visited at the end of his itinerary. Kim Chang－Heup also created many poems in his way back. This is the reason why he was filled with emotion again, even though he had already seen the landscape, or he encountered scenery that he had never seen.BR Thus, Kim Chang－Heup left a lot of prose records and creations of classical Chinese poems during one－month long tour to the four districts. It contains everything he saw, heard, and felt through the excursion, such as the various aspects of cruising on the ship, the pleasure of the accompanying people, and the sorrow and meditation that he felt alone. In the case of classical Chinese poems, they were organized and distributed as Dangurok and became the mediator of memory to the accompanying people taking the journey together. In addition, the surrounding characters and later writers became enthusiastic about the excursion to the four districts and created momentum to trigger the future journey to the four districts.

Exploring “fabula” and “sjuzhet” in classical Chinese poetry from the perspective of cognitive poetics

By examining how two important narratological concepts, fabula and sjuzhet, can be employed in the studies of classical Chinese poetry, this article attempts to unlock the potential of narrative techniques in the criticism of lyric poetry. It finds firstly that fabula in lyric poetry consists of both material elements and lyrical elements; secondly, interpretation of Chinese eulogistic poems entails not only comprehension of the events presented in the text, but also the hyper-textual background of the poet; thirdly, the understanding of space in lyric poetry requires the knowledge of story, discourse, the poet’s composing process, as well as the readers’ engagement. From a cognitive poetics perspective, the article argues that complete aesthetic appreciation of lyrical poems needs the readers’ imagination, knowledge, mental state, and the text. Finally, as demonstrated in its analysis of some Chinese classic poems, this article stresses that the readers’ cognition of the poet’s life is crucial, and can be applied as a pragmatic approach to understanding Chinese lyric poetry.

Research and Applications Progress of Lenalidomide in Relapsed / Refractory Blood System Diseases -Review

Lenalidomide, a novel immunomodulatory agent, is a kind of thalidomide derivatives, which shows a good efficacy and safety for hematological system diseases. This review is aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of lenalidomide in treatment of patients with multiple myeloma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, acute myeloid leukemia, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, classical Hodgkin's lymphoma and POEMS syndrome at their replased or refractory state. At the same time, this review focuses on the newest clinical research and the latest application progress of lenalidomide for relapsed or refractory hematological system diseases.

Chinese Poetic Modernisms ed. by Paul Manfredi and Christopher Lupke

Reviewed by: Chinese Poetic Modernisms ed. by Paul Manfredi and Christopher Lupke Joseph R. Allen (bio) Paul Manfredi and Christopher Lupke, editors. Chinese Poetic Modernisms. Leiden: Brill, 2019. xi, 403 pp. Hardcover $232.00, isbn 978-90-04-40288-1. Many of you will want (and should own) this volume of essays; yet, with a price tag of $232.00, few will be able to afford it—unless you have a very generous research budget. No doubt the essays will have a robust afterlife as individual PDFs circulating the cyber world. That is good for many reasons, but it is also unfortunate. For, although any given essay can be profitably read as a stand-alone piece, each and all are much richer in the dense intratextual environment of this collective volume. Thus, it is odd decision not to include any cross-referencing between the essays themselves. Perhaps the editors thought that such cross-referencing would have been too dense to be useful. But one thing such internal cross-referencing would have done is leave residual traces of the whole admirable, integrated project within the individual essays as they float detached through the PDF ocean: always a reminder of what is missing. For almost all these essays there is an elephant in the room, sometimes acknowledged, often ignored: that is, the looming shadow of the Chinese classical poem and its language. Paul Manfredi states the problem most clearly: Chinese New Poetry, which labored to emerge from under the oppressive weight of its predecessor, classical verse, was not as fortunate as visual art in terms of its ability to change modes of expression without sacrificing its claims to expressive object. … Poets therefore confronted a sort of stubborn tabula rasa, a free verse that was, from the point of view of most of the Chinese reading public, indistinguishable from prose. (p. 341) Lucas Klein backs into the argument through a refutation of Michelle Yeh's refutation of Stephen Owen's now well-known argument that much contemporary Chinese poetry is merely international poetry written for translation. Klein says: But if Chineseness is, for Owen, best located in Chinese poetry's premodern traditions, then in Yeh's intent to rebuff Owen by asserting that "Modern [Chinese] Poetry embodies a new paradigm that is radically different from the [End Page 61] revered paradigm of Classical Poetry" ("No Camels," 24), she actually ends up re-consecrating Chineseness as the product of the past, rather than the present. (p. 307) The problem appears two-fold. Many readers (both native and foreign) still place very high value on the classical Chinese poem. And second, modern Chinese poetry is written in the same medium as the classical poem so it bears the burden of tradition more clearly than other modern artistic forms, as Manfredi suggests. That is not just because both poetries are in Chinese languages, but also because the porousness between those languages with its shared morphemes makes it is very easy to slip from the vernacular language into a classical form, either intentionally or by happenstance—see Lupke, p. 213, on this. And that brings us to the central concern of the fourteen essays: modernism or, as the editors emphasize, the plurality of modernisms in Chinese poetry. The editors have eschewed an encompassing definition of modernism, allowing individual authors to develop their own understanding of the concept and practice. There is a core statement from the editors: The goal of our research, moreover, is not simply to attempt to fix "modernism" within the cultural record, Chinese or other. We aim, rather, to narrow the aperture enough to enable in-depth discussion of one style and geographic and genre pairing, Chinese modernist poetry, while at the same time allowing for at least some of the intellectual anarchy Xudong Zhang describes in his 1997 discussion of Chinese modernism, a cultural phenomenon that is "never a neatly developed, fully secure, and glamorously ossified object waiting gentlemanly scholarship; it is always in a moment of painful birth, and profound ambiguity, mired in its formal and political promises and fragility."1 (p. 2) Here I will use the essays' "intellectual anarchy" in the engagement of modernism as a window into the each...