City Of Cochabamba Research Articles

Along the Bolivian Highway: Social Mobility and Political Culture in a New Middle Class - by Shakow, Miriam

Shakow, Miriam (2014) Along the Bolivian Highway: Social Mobility and Political Culture in a New Middle Class, University of Pennsylvania Press (Philadelphia, PA), ix + 259 pp. $65.00 hbk. There is much discussion among development economists about the recent ‘rise of the middle classes’ in the Global South. Do they exist? What is the monetary threshold for belonging to the middle class? How vulnerable are such groups to falling back into poverty? Are the new middle classes the drive behind the ‘emerging economies’? Miriam Shakow asks a different set of questions, equally if not more important, concerning the political positions of these groups. Are new middle classes, as expected within theories of democracy, shaping democratic politics, and if so, how? And, in relation to the Bolivian case under scrutiny, how do upwardly mobile Bolivians challenge the construction of Bolivia as a country divided in a ‘poor and indigenous’ majority on the one hand, and the ‘rich and elitist’ minority on the other? How do these groups relate to and influence the leftist-indigenist government of Evo Morales? Shakow's book is timely and provides an anthro-political analysis of who these new middle classes are, what they aspire to, and how they relate to local, regional and national politics. The desire to overcome poverty and marginality did not emerge with Evo Morales or revolutionary politics. Bolivians worked hard to access higher education and professional jobs, and to set up profitable businesses. Shakow examines in depth the lives of upwardly mobile families in Sacaba, a town located between the provincial city of Cochabamba and the main coca growing area of Chapare. Here, farmers made money by growing coca leaves until the ‘war on drugs’ made this an unprofitable and precarious business. Nevertheless, the children of those coca growers benefitted from the coca boom of the 1980s and 1990s, and were able to aspire to a different life than the one their parents had led. Their relative prosperity and urban lifestyle do not fit in the notion of a Bolivia irreconcilably divided along class and ethnic lines. With changing socio-economic status comes a change in ethnic identity; as elsewhere in the Andes, class and race are strongly intertwined and to overcome marginality one has to overcome indigeneity. The middling Sacabans, Shakow shows, want to distinguish themselves from uneducated and ‘backward’ indigenous neighbours, even if their own background and upbringing is not very different. This creates tensions in identities and alliances: as Sacabans want to be recognised as ‘better’ than the indigenous, it becomes politically difficult to identify with a movement that proposes to ‘redistribute’ resources back to the indigenous majority. The desire for upward mobility and ‘superiority over their friends and neighbours’ is difficult to square with ‘the imperative of social equality’ (p. 10). So, Morales' political platform does not appeal greatly to these new middle classes. At the same time, there is an uncomfortable feeling among many middling Sacabans that the MAS, Morales' party, is where they belong. Shakow argues that the MAS has reified the idea of a postcolonial bifurcation of identity and citizenship, overlooking those important groups that do not fit the binary anymore. Shakow also looks at important issues such as clientelism, betrayal and envy as political strategies by examining the political aspirations of individual Sacabans and their relations with their own communities as well as with national politics. The author has some interesting things to say about these in Chapters 4–6; however, I found her observations about the intimate politics of identity even more interesting. In Chapter 2, Shakow looks at upward mobility and changing class and ethnic identity within families, and explores the contradictions and tensions that develop as a consequence of the desire to overcome marginality and questions of social equality. Racism towards those perceived as ‘more Indian’ is reproduced within families and among lovers and couples, creating an uncomfortable mix of upward mobility and downward kicking within the home. These intimate politics of race and class are very gendered, as women tend to be perceived as ‘more Indian’ than men (De la Cadena, 1991). The majority of the protagonists of Along the Bolivian Highway are women. This should have enabled an analysis that takes into account gender as an essential ingredient in the reproduction of inequality, both at home as well as in national politics. Unfortunately, Shakow does not consider gendered processes in her otherwise excellent book. This failure to take gender analysis into account aside, Along the Bolivian Highway is an important contribution to understanding contemporary politics in Bolivia, as well as the changes and tensions that emerge with the rise of new middle classes in developing countries.

Emboldened journeys: the effects of return migration on female empowerment in Cochabamba, Bolivia

This article analyses, on the basis of empirical fieldwork, the impact of return migration on the empowerment position of Bolivian female return migrants from the City of Cochabamba. It challenges the dominant discourse on migration and female empowerment, emphasising the empowerment processes while being 'away'. Using Charmes and Wieringa's (2003) empowerment model, we explore the empowerment processes of women upon return. We argue that the majority of the women experience economic empowerment during their departure and stay abroad. Upon return, however, this form of empowerment can only be attained by splitting up with their partners, thus also affecting their social empowerment position. As such, the article contributes to the body of knowledge on empowerment as a process, which aligns with the current practice of migration as a nonlinear process, with people moving back and forth.

Understanding parrot trafficking between illicit markets in Bolivia: an application of the CRAVED model

The CRAVED model has been used to understand theft variation in a whole host of hot products, including wildlife. Past research, however, has only applied the model at either the theft or illicit market stage to understand why particular products are stolen in high numbers. The CRAVED model has yet to be applied to the trafficking stage of hot products smuggled between illicit markets and, therefore, its applicability at this particular stage remains unknown. Using secondary data from the Los Pozos wildlife market in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, this study applies the CRAVED model to explain why parrot species are trafficked between illicit markets in Bolivia. This research finds that species that are more “available” and less “valuable” are more likely to be trafficked between illicit markets, suggesting that variation at the trafficking stage of the parrot trade can be explained by nearly the same CRAVED concepts as they do at the poaching stage. This study also finds that one-quarter of parrots in the Los Pozos market are trafficked to other cities, of which 99% are to the city of Cochabamba. These findings suggest that shutting down illicit markets and patrolling major roadways between cities can substantially reduce the illegal parrot trade.

Update on the management of anorectal malformations

Thirty-three years ago, on 10 August 1980, in Mexico City, the first patient with an anorectal malformation was operated on using the posterior sagittal approach. At that time it was not obvious that we were actually opening a "Pandora's box" that continues to give many positive surprises, a few disappointments, and the constant hope that each day we can learn more about how to improve the quality of life of children born with all different types of anorectal malformations. In November 2012, patient number 3000 in our database was operated in the city of Cochabamba, Bolivia; during one of our International Courses of Anorectal Malformations and Colorectal Problems in Children. The goal of this article is to give a brief update on the current management of patients with anorectal malformation, based on the multiple lessons learned during this period.

Struggling at the Borders of the City: Environmental Justice and Water Access in the Southern Zone of Cochabamba, Bolivia

In the periphery of the city of Cochabamba, many communities are struggling to retain a diversity of options for their livelihoods and are resisting the illegal urbanization of agricultural land as well as the pollution generated by the dumping of most of the city's waste in the area. The struggle is aimed not only at maintaining the agrarian characteristics of the area and reversing environmental harm but also at drafting municipal plans of an alternative vision of the city that goes beyond an urban metropolis built only of cement and bricks. An important element for the realization of that vision is access to sufficient and clean water needed to carry out domestic and productive activities in better conditions.

Cuantificación de los tamaños de porciones de alimentos en una muestra de adolescentes cochabambinos (Bolivia)

The main objective of this study was to assess the actual food portion sizes in a sample of adolescents from the Bolivian city of Cochabamba. A convenience sample of 88 adolescents aged 12 -18 years participated in this study. Actual portion sizes were measured under supervision using the weighed dietary record (WDR) method of dietary assessment. The study herewith provides the weights of the most commonly used portions in Bolivia. These weights can be further used to calculate food intake by other methods such as food frequency questionnaires or 24 h recalls.

SHIFTING ALLIANCES: RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIPS DURING TIMES OF ECONOMIC HARDSHIP IN URBAN BOLIVIA

Recent research indicates that urban reciprocity, a survival strategy used by the urban poor to self-insure against economic risks, has been eroded by deepening poverty and economic insecurity. This paper examines how the urban poor maintain reciprocal relationships in Villa Israel, a periurban settlement located on the outskirts of the city of Cochabamba, Bolivia. The results indicate that, while some reciprocal relationships do appear to be in decline, others have been transformed in ways that enhance security for participants. In particular, there appears to have been a shift away from reciprocal relationships formed on the basis of compadrazgo (ritual godparenthood) and �paisanidad� (shared origin) and toward those formed around commerce and evangelico (Protestant or evangelical) churches

Flow resistance in steep mountain rivers in Bolivia

The present paper illustrates the assessment of the Darcy-Weisbach flow resistance coefficients f at five steep mountain rivers located in the northern mountain range surrounding the city of Cochabamba in Bolivia. Extensive field works were carried out. Several empirical formulas were tested. Results show that some of the aforementioned formulas provide good results in the assessment of f, being the model of Ugarte & Madrid-Aris (1994) the most accurate one. Plots showing direct logarithmic relationships between f and the riverbed slope So were obtained for each studied river, as well as an overall relationship of f vs. So.

CARDIOVASCULAR RISK FACTORS IN A LOW-INCOME BOLIVIAN COMMUNITY: PP.7.303

The incidence of cardiovascular risk factors in developing economies is rapidly increasing. The challenge of cardiovascular disease in developing economies was defined as “a race against time” (Leeder, S. et al. The Earth Institute, Columbia University; New York: 2004). We have evaluated the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in a low-income community in Bolivia. The survey was made in 4 parish primary care centers in the city of Cochabamba (Condebamba and Nuestra Señora de Guadalupe in the northern part of the city; Maria Auxiliadora and San Marcos in the southern part) as well as in two rural communities (Challviri ed Arani). A total of 895 subjects were evaluated: 299 males (33%) and 596 females (67%). The subjects were then subdivided, according to migratory characteristics, in 4 groups: 269 (30%) born and living in rural areas (rural), 231 (26%) born in rural areas and then migrated in the city (migrated), 27 (3%) born in the city and emigrated in rural areas (emigrated), 368 (41%) born and living in the city (citizens). Results are summarized in the Table (*=p < 0.05; ***p < 0.001 vs. Rurals).In comparison with rural “campesinos”, those migrated in an urban environment had higher blood pressure values and a higher body mass index and serum glucose. Citizens had higher blood pressure and body mass index in comparison with rurals. An increase in liver transaminases was observed in those migrated in the city, probably due to an increased alcohol consumption. Chi-square analysis confirmed these data, showing a clearly increased prevalence of metabolic syndrome in migrated or in citizens in comparison with rurals (16.2% and 18.1% vs. 6%, respectively). In conclusion, our data confirm the presence of an epidemic of cardiovascular risk factors, in particular obesity/overweight, in a low-income community, as well as the role of urbanization in this regard.

Justicia y tortura en los Andes: Recurso de Judas Tadeo Andrade ante la Audiencia de Charcas, 1791

The Archivo y Biblioteca Nacionales de Bolivia is the repository of, among other treasures, a most valuable and unique document, the “Recurso de Judas Tadeo Andrade, residente en Cochabamba, ante la Audiencia de Charcas para que se reciba información de testigos, según el interrogatorio y las laminas en colores que presenta, sobre diversos excesos del gobernador intendente y otros magistrados de esta provincial.” It consists of a complaint against the Santa Crúz de la Sierra’s intendant and governor Francisco de Viedma, his asesor Eusebio Gómez García, and several other state officials, filed in 1791 before the Real Audiencia de Charcas, in La Plata. The author, Judas Tadeo Andrade, was a shoemaker, barber, and bleeder born in Río de la Plata and residing at the time in the city of Cochabamba. This late eighteenth-century document is particularly striking in that it not only addresses vividly the crooked functioning of the justice system and the tortures and abuses committed by the local authorities when they jailed its author, accusing him of having both injured a shoemaker apprentice and disrespected them, but also in that 7 of its 30 pages are colorful graphic illustrations of the irregular conducts described in it. Said illustrations depict the shackles placed on Andrade’s legs and also a metallic security device and lock put around his waist and over his stomach, the public parading of his shackled body on a piece of cloth or on horseback, and the way he was kept in chains tied to a pole while standing up inside a prison cell. Along with the document’s rich iconography, in which several contemporary characters are depicted wearing the garments corresponding to their respective occupational or social group — there being soldiers, officers, scribes, blacksmiths, local noblemen, and other contemporaries who observe the events — there are also detailed written accusations of wrongdoing by several of the crown’s officers. These charges included physical punishments inflicted on Andrade and other prisoners, some of whom died, during the almost three years that he remained locked in a Cochabamba jail, as well as diverse acts of corruption, especially bribe taking, that occurred during the handling of criminal cases and detentions. They are also accused of embezzlement of public funds, encouragement of tobacco smuggling, and influence peddling.This nicely designed publication is presented in landscape format and contains other lavish illustrations. Published jointly by the Bolivian National Archives and Libraries and the Spanish Ministry of Education and Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), the volume offers a facsimile edition of the document in question, its transcription, and three rich essays dealing with its context and related issues. The first essay is a newspaper piece originally published in 1971 by Gunnar Mendoza, who for 50 years (1944–94) directed the Bolivian archives and is credited with having published equivalent historical documents of great significance, including Arzáns de Orsúa y Vela’s celebrated Tales of Potosí. Mendoza examines the collective pre-independence mood at the time of Andrade’s complaint and also reconstructs the barber’s biography, putting into doubt his authorship of the paintings, which are instead attributed to a local artist supposedly commissioned by him to carry out the task. Later historians, however, have forcefully argued otherwise. The second essay, by CSIC researcher and historian Víctor Peralta Ruiz, is a discussion of the larger iconography addressing justice and judicial torture under the Spanish monarchy, within which the only relatively equivalent images identified are the ones contained in Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala’s Nueva crónica y buen gobierno. The third and most extensive essay, by Universidad Autónoma de Zacatecas professor José Enciso Contreras, is a judicious study that addresses the extent to which Judas Tadeo Andrade’s judicial case, tortures, and confinement conditions were similar to or different from other known colonial cases. This essay confirms that judicial abuses, torture, and inhuman jails were far from exceptional in colonial Spanish America. Finally, the volume also offers a unified bibliography listing all of the pertinent works cited in the various essays.This fascinating and useful book belongs in both research collections and even general libraries. It lends itself to further discussions of the functioning of the colonial administration and judicial system, the political conditions and culture prevailing on the eve of independence, and the characteristics of the period’s dress codes and material culture. The editors and publishers should be congratulated on making available to a wider readership such a unique historical record and for the selection of informative essays to accompany and explain the significance of the document.

La real expedición filantrópica de la vacuna (Xavier de Balmis/Josep Salvany): 1803-1806

Six years after Jenner discovered the anti-smallpox vaccine, King Charles IV mandated the initiation of vaccination campaigns throughout his kingdom. The overseas campaign was coordinated by the Valencian military doctor Xavier de Balmis with the aid of the Catalan Josep Salvany. The vaccine was transported to America "in vivo" in 22 children. The expedition departed from La Coruña on November 1806 and arrived to the Venezuelan port of La Guayra where it was split in two: One sub expedition under the order of Josep Salvany, continued by land to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Salvany died in the Bolivian city of Cochabamba. The other sub expedition, leaded by Balmis himself, continued by sea to Cuba and Mexico. From Acapulco it arrived to Manila and from there to Macau followed by inland penetration into China.

The royal philanthropic expedition of the vaccine (Xavier de Balmis/Josep Salvany). 1803-1806

Six years after Jenner discovered the anti-smallpox vaccine, King Charles IV mandated the initiation of vaccination campaigns throughout his kingdom. The overseas campaign was coordinated by the Valencian military doctor Xavier de Balmis with the aid of the Catalan Josep Salvany. The vaccine was transported to America "in vivo" in 22 children. The expedition departed from La Coruña on November 1806 and arrived to the Venezuelan port of La Guayra where it was split in two: One sub expedition under the order of Josep Salvany, continued by land to Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Salvany died in the Bolivian city of Cochabamba. The other sub expedition, leaded by Balmis himself, continued by sea to Cuba and Mexico. From Acapulco it arrived to Manila and from there to Macau followed by inland penetration into China.

Threatened fishes of the world: Oligosarcus schindleri Menezes &amp; Géry 1983 (Characidae)

Common name: Platincho (Bolivia). Conservation status: Threatened (Sarmiento and Barrera 2003). Identification: Oligosarcus schindleri (Ostariophysii: Characiformes: Characidae) is silvery with a longitudinal dark band and a vertically elongated humeral spot. Jaws and ectopterygoids have caniniform and conical teeth. A iv17–19. Adults can reach 100 mm standard length (SL). Distribution: Water bodies around Cochabamba city, Bolivia (Rio Grande watershed) (17°32′ S/66°05′ W). A single record exists to the upper Rio Chapare (Menezes and Gery 1983). Habitat and ecology: Undisturbed creeks and muddy ponds between 2,200 and 3,400 m above sea level. Lives in some localities with the exotic species Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus 1758, Gambusia affinis (Baird and Girard 1853) and Odontesthes bonariensis (Valenciennes 1835). Its main diet are Cladocerans (Delgadillo and Munoz 2007; Vallejos et al. 2007). Reproduction: Spawns the year around. The peak of female reproduction period is from October to March (Munoz et al. 2008). Female and male maturity sizes are 40 and 36 mm SL, respectively (Patino and Munoz 2007). Threats: Critical water pollution and discharge level of creeks (Maldonado et al. 1998), predation and food competition with O. bonariensis (Vallejos et al. 2008), selective removal by local fishermen to avoid a supposed predation on the more economically valuable O. bonariensis, and its restricted distribution. Conservation recommendations: To restore water bodies around Cochabamba city and avoid introduction of more exotic species that can compete with this fish. Environ Biol Fish (2009) 85:39–40 DOI 10.1007/s10641-009-9458-7

Urban transmission of Chagas disease in Cochabamba, Bolivia

Chagas disease is a major public health problem in Bolivia. In the city of Cochabamba, 58% of the population lives in peripheral urban districts ("popular zones") where the infection prevalence is extremely high. From 1995 to 1999, we studied the demographics of Chagas infections in children from five to 13 years old (n = 2218) from the South zone (SZ) and North zone (NZ) districts, which differ in social, environmental, and agricultural conditions. Information gathered from these districts demonstrates qualitative and quantitative evidence for the active transmission of Trypanosoma cruzi in urban Cochabamba. Seropositivity was high in both zones (25% in SZ and 19% in NZ). We observed a high risk of infection in children from five to nine years old in SZ, but in NZ, a higher risk occurred in children aged 10-13, with odds ratio for infection three times higher in NZ than in SZ. This difference was not due to triatomine density, since more than 1,000 Triatoma infestans were captured in both zones, but was possibly secondary to the vector infection rate (79% in SZ and 37% in NZ). Electrocardiogram abnormalities were found to be prevalent in children and pre-adolescents (SZ = 40%, NZ = 17%), indicating that under continuous exposure to infection and re-infection, a severe form of the disease may develop early in life. This work demonstrates that T. cruzi infection should also be considered an urban health problem and is not restricted to the rural areas and small villages of Bolivia.

Formas políticas peri-urbanas

This essay explores the production of peri-urban participatorypractices in the city of Cochabamba, Bolivia. We seek to identify thedistinctive and productive elements of local forms of social andpolitical organization, constructed both in spite of and in the contextof the city’s exclusions. We begin by examining the historical andinstitutional frameworks that have created a discriminated andexcluded area of the city. We then consider the formation oforganizational relations in this context, identifying everydayparticipatory practices of inhabitants of two neighborhoods in theperipheries of the city. We highlight, in particular, those localpractices that point towards alternatives to two fundamental elementsof liberal citizenship: its enduring division between the private andthe public, and its individualization of socio-political claims. Finally,we explore the importance of peri-urban practices and logics in thecurrent socio-political panorama of the country.

Risk factors and consequences of congenital Chagas disease in Yacuiba, south Bolivia

To determine the risk factors of congenital Chagas disease and the consequences of the disease in newborns. Study of 2712 pregnant women and 2742 newborns in Yacuiba, south Bolivia. Chagas infection was determined serologically in mothers and parasitologically in newborns. Consequences of congenital Chagas disease were assessed clinically. The prevalence of Chagas disease in pregnant women was 42.2%. Congenital transmission was estimated at 6% of infected mothers leading to an incidence rate of 2.6% among newborns. Main risk factors of congenital transmission were mothers' seropositivity and maternal Trypanosoma cruzi parasitaemia. Parity was higher in infected than in non-infected mothers, but it was not associated with the risk of congenital transmission. The rate of congenital infection was significantly higher in newborns from multiple pregnancies than in singletons. However, we did not observe statistically significant consequences of Chagas disease in newborns from single pregnancies or among twins. The main risk factors for congenital transmission were infection and parasitaemia of mothers. Consequences of the disease seemed mild in newborns from single pregnancies and perhaps more important in multiple births.

Iron Supplementation in Previously Anemic Bolivian Children Normalized Hematologic Parameters, But Not Immunologic Parameters

Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is considered to be the most prevalent micronutrient deficiency in the world. Estimates indicate that 1.2 billion people suffer mild to severe forms of anemia and that up to 46% of schoolchildren in developing countries are affected. In 2003, ENDSA, the national demographic and health survey of Bolivia showed that 60% of children under five and 72% of children under 2 years old were anemic. Micronutrient deficiency has been suggested to impair cell-mediated immunity. In particular, iron, zinc and vitamin A deficiencies have an impact on the immune system. In vitro and in vivo laboratory studies indicate a link between iron deficiency and impaired T-lymphocyte proliferation. The exact effects or mechanisms of iron deficiency on maturation and proliferation of T-lymphocytes in vivo are, however, not yet known. This study investigated the effects of iron on the maturation of T-lymphocytes in anemic but otherwise healthy schoolchildren (no apparent protein-energy deficiency or other morbidity). Anemic children of a poor peri-urban school of Cochabamba city, Bolivia, were given iron treatment for three consecutive months. We chose to look at CD1a+ lymphocytes, which are immature thymocytes. The proportions of CD1a+ lymphocytes in the peripheral circulation measured at baseline and after treatment were compared with a reference group of age-matched non-anemic children controls from the same school. The immunologic parameters, although improved, did not reach the proportions of the control group. Overall, the proportion of circulating immature T-lymphocytes decreased from 18.3% to 9.2% in the treated following iron supplementation in anemic children, compared with 3.4% in non-anemic children.

Enfermedades Diarreicas Agudas asociadas a Rotavirus

ABSTRACT Acute diarrhea diseases associated to Rotavirus In the period of 2001-2002, a total of 1163 fecal samples were collected from children less than five years ofage with diarrhea, at the Hospital Albina Patino and other health centers in Cochabamba city. Rotavirusinfection general prevalence was 19% (220), distributed among hospitalized children 24% (77) andoutpatients 17% (143). Rotavirus infections were observed along the whole study period, with highestprevalence in coldest months: April (24%), May (34%) and June (28%) and lowest frequencies (8-15%) inFebruary, August, and September. Major rotavirus outbreak was significantly associated with the driestand colder season. The highest percentage of rotavirus infections (36,3%) was found among childrenbetween 7-12 months of age. Moderate dehydration, vomits and fever were the clinical symptoms morefrequently associated with rotavirus acute gastroenteritis, being dehydration more common in hospitalizedpatients. The distribution of P and G genotypes analyzed by RT-PCR was: G1 (44%), G2 (6%), P[8] (24%)and P4 (15%). A co-infection P[8]P[6] was observed in 3 samples (4%). Genotype P[6] was foundassociated to outpatients. These findings, highlight that rotavirus is an important cause of acutegastroenteritis and that any of the currently available vaccines would potentially be protective againstcirculating strains found in the city of Cochabamba.(

Management of Laguna Alalay: a case study of lake restoration in Andean valleys in Bolivia

We describe the limnological changes between 1989 and 2006 in an urban, shallow lake, Laguna Alalay, located in the Andean valley of Cochabamba (Bolivia). Until 1960, water diversion to the lake was used to lower the inundation risk of Cochabamba city. In the 1980s and 1990s, the high waterfowl diversity and recreational services provided by the lake increased its conservation value. However, the population increase and the discharge of wastewater rich in nutrients increased eutrophication, and the lake became characterized by an annual alternation of submerged macrophytes and phytoplankton. The main aim of the present study is to analyze the response of the lake to manipulations implemented by local authorities: (a) sediment removal and accidental introduction of the exotic fish species Odontesthes bonariensis in 1997 and (b) manual mass removal of floating macrophytes during 2004–2006. The sediment removal and species introduction had several unpredictable consequences for the functioning of the lake, namely the transition to a permanent turbid water state and the persistent dominance of floating macrophytes. A general conclusion of our study is that any lake recovery measures in Bolivia should consider not only ecological, but also socio-economic and political aspects. Taking these into account, restoration of the submerged macrophyte-dominated state may not be that universally desirable as is widely held.

Impact of Increased Access and Price on Household Water Use in Urban Bolivia

Using the 1994 Bolivian Integrated Household Survey, this study analyzes the equity implications of urban water sector reform including both increased water prices and increased access to piped water. Household water expenditures are examined by income decile, and low-income households are found to spend a higher percentage of income on water than high-income households. However, households purchasing from private water vendors could benefit from obtaining piped water, because regression analysis shows that on average, these households spend more on water than those with piped water inside their buildings or yards. This differential was the greatest in the city of Cochabamba, which also had the largest percentage of households purchasing from private water vendors. To understand the equity impact of water reform, the effects on both prereform users of piped water and those without access to piped water must be considered.