Chrysomya Bezziana Research Articles

Distribution Modeling of three screwworm species in the ecologically diverse landscape of North West Pakistan

North West Pakistan (NWP) is characterized by four eco-zones: Northern Montane Region, North Western Hills, Submontane Region and Indus Plains. Present study identified 1037 cases of traumatic myiasis in the region during 2012–2015. Screw worm larvae were classified as 12 species: Chrysomya bezziana (Villeneuve), Chryomya megacephala (Fabricius), Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart), Lucilia cuprina (Wiedemann), Lucilia sericata (Meigen), Lucilia illustris (Meigen), Lucilia porphyrina (Walker), Hemipyrellia ligguriens (Wiedemann), Calliphora vicina (Robineau-Desvoidy), Wohlfahrtia magnifica (Schiner), Sarcophaga crassipalpalis (Macquart), Sarchophaga species. Among these C. bezziana, L. cuprina and W. magnifica with approximately 882 case reports were the principal agents of traumatic myiasis. The species W. magnifica is a first report from Pakistan. In order to investigate spatial distribution of these dominant species we used MaxEnt niche model. Our results revealed a well-established occurrence of C. bezziana and L. cuprina in the four eco-regions while W. magnifica is currently contained in the Submontane Region. Several hot spot areas of infestation were detected all characterized by high human population density showing synanthropic nature of these species. Wohlfahrtia magnifica was excluded from Northern Montane Region with severe winters and Southern Indus Plains with harsh summers revealing that invasive species are initially sensitive to extreme of temperatures. Presence of L. cuprina in the wet areas of North Humid Belt (Maximum annual precipitation: 1641mm) depicted a moisture preference of the species. In perspective of changing climate and future predictions of severe events such as droughts and flooding in NWP, W. magnifica can potentially alter the species composition. Considering these findings in an eco-geographically dynamic region of Pakistan we predict that two factors (1) Growing human population (2) Climatic conditions, equally contribute to range shift of synanthropic species.

The bioefficacy of crude extracts of Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) on the survival and development of myiasis-causing larvae of Chrysomya bezziana (Diptera: Calliphoridae).

Myiasis is a type of parasitosis originating from the invasion of tissues of live humans and other vertebrates by dipteran larvae. The Old World screwworm fly—Chrysomya bezziana—is known worldwide in the tropical regions for causing myiasis among man and domestic animals, thereby leading to health hazards and severe economic losses to the dairy farmers. Management techniques for controlling populations of the fly are needed to minimize these losses. Plant-derived materials have been increasingly evaluated these days in controlling the insects of medical and veterinary importance. This study evaluated the efficacy of crude extracts of the plant neem, Azadirachta indica, against C. bezziana. The dried leaves of the plant were extracted successively with four different solvents viz. petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate and methanol and were evaluated against the third instar larvae of C. bezziana using dipping method and thin film application technique. In the dipping method, larvae were dipped in four different concentrations of plant extracts for 30 s, whereas in the thin film application, they were exposed to a thin film of plant extracts. The results showed that all the extracts had toxic effect on the larvae in both the techniques. In the dipping method, the highest mortalities were recorded in methanol extract followed by chloroform, petroleum ether and ethyl acetate extracts with LC50 values 1.07 g/100 ml, 1.7 g/100 ml, 3.39 g/100 ml and 4.9 g/100 ml, respectively. In the thin film application method, methanol extract showed the highest mortalities followed by chloroform, ethyl acetate and petroleum ether with LC50 values 0.4 mg/cm2, 0.6 mg/cm2, 2.1 mg/cm2 and 2.5 mg/cm2. It is concluded that the crude extracts of A. indica can be used in controlling the larvae of C. bezziana by using the dipping as well as thin film application technique.

Succession of various insect pollinators/visitors visiting on niger crop (Guizotia abyssinica cass.)

Studies on the succession of various insect pollinators/ visitors on niger crop was undertaken during the Rabi 2011-12. Total 15 species of insect pollinators/ visitors were found visiting on niger flowers. Amongst the pollinators/visitors, Apis cerana indica appeared first on niger flower followed by Apis florea, Danaus chrysippus, Eristalis sp., Pelopidas mathias, Apis dorsata, Musca domestica, Nazara virudula, Dysdercus cingulatus, Leptocorisa acuta, Amata passelis, Chrysomya bezziana, Coccinella septumpunctata, Vespa cincta and sarcophaga sp. They were found visiting on niger flower throughout the bloomimg period.

Isolation and identification of associated bacteria and maggots from myiasis affected wounds of cattle and goats in Bangladesh

The study was carried out to investigate the associated maggots and bacteria in myiasis affected wound in animals. Total 37 myiasis affected cattle (n=25) and goats (n=12) were examined in this study, of which 21 samples were collected from the Veterinary clinics of Bangladesh Agricultural University (BAU), Mymensingh, and the remaining 16 samples were collected from Upazila Veterinary Hospital, Gouripur, Mymensingh. The maggots were collected from the wounds, and were identified under microscope. For microbial identification, samples (n=10) were collected aseptically by using sterile cotton swab. The samples were allowed to grow in media. Colony and staining characteristics were studied. Traumatic, creeping or migratory myiasis wounds were identified in the examined animals. In this study, subcutaneous wound was mostly recorded, of which 43% (n=9/21) was found at the Veterinary Clinics, BAU, and 44% (n=7/16) was found at the Upazila Veterinary Hospital, Gouripur. The maggots were identified as Chrysomya bezziana, commonly known as Old World screwworm. Occurrence of myiasis due to C. bezziana larvae was recorded as 100%. The associated bacteria were identified as Staphylococcus spp. In conclusion, the myiasis wounds are associated with both Staphylococcus spp. and larvae of C. bezziana. Preventive and control measures against the C. bezziana and Staphylococcus spp. can be undertaken to save the livestock from myiasis in Bangladesh.

Cutaneous myiasis complicating basal cell carcinoma in a case of xeroderma pigmentosum

Myiasis is the infestation of live vertebrates (humans and/or animals) with dipterous larvae. It is known to infest patients with poor hygiene mostly in tropics with high fly population. The description of myiasis associated with cutaneous malignancy is infrequent in literature and very limited cases have been reported in patients of xeroderma pigmentosum (XP). We report a case of cutaneous myiasis complicating basal cell carcinoma (BCC) in a case of XP. The diagnosis of BCC was confirmed on histopathological evaluation. The maggots were identified as old world screwworm, Chrysomya bezziana Vill. of the fly family Calliphoridae. The malignant wounds were flooded with turpentine oil resulting in suffocation and death of maggots following which they were manually removed. Oral antibiotics and analgesics were given along with oral ivermectin.

Spatial analysis of targeted surveillance for screw-worm fly (Chrysomya bezziana or Cochliomyia hominivorax) in Australia.

To assess Australia's targeted surveillance to detect an incursion of screw-worm fly (Chrysomya bezziana). A multi-criteria analysis shell was used to combine data on potential pathways of entry, availability of host species and environmental factors affecting survival of screw-worm fly in order to map spatial variation in the relative likelihood of a screw-worm fly incursion into Australia. Australia's current screw-worm fly surveillance activities were reviewed to determine whether they are located in the areas of highest likelihood of an incursion. Under average environmental conditions, an incursion of screw-worm fly in Australia is relatively more likely to occur along the north coast, down the eastern seaboard or in the south-east. Cold winter temperatures would limit the environmental suitability for screw-worm fly survival to the north and north-east coast and adjacent inland areas. Australia's current targeted surveillance conducted by the Northern Australia Quarantine Strategy program of the Australian Department of Agriculture (adult screw-worm fly trapping and myiasis sampling) correlated well with areas considered to have a high relative likelihood of an incursion of screw-worm fly. Adult fly trapping conducted at sea ports was less well correlated. Changes to surveillance at sea ports are proposed to better target areas considered to have a higher relative likelihood of screw-worm fly incursion. These include increasing the trapping intensity along the north and north-east coasts and shifting surveillance activity from the west coast to the south-east.

Environmental and phylogeographical determinants of the distribution of the Old World screwworm fly in Indonesia

The Old World screwworm (OWS) fly, Chrysomya bezziana, is an obligate parasite of livestock, and the myiasis caused by its larval infestations is economically important in Indonesia. The current spatial distribution of such a pest depends on two main factors: the current environmental conditions in which it can survive; and, its ability to occupy those environments by dispersal, which can be inferred from phylogeography and population genetics. These indicate that all OWS flies in Indonesia have mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b) haplotypes of the Asian lineage, and the regional separation of its four sub-lineages is the result of infrequent long-distance dispersal. We report the first investigation to associate regional cyt b sub-lineages of the OWS fly with environmental variables. Principal Components Analysis was used to demonstrate that these sub-lineages are associated with very similar macro-climates throughout Indonesia. Then, a species distribution model for the OWS fly in Indonesia was obtained by using the Maxent program. This indicated that elevation captured information not given by other environmental variables, and cattle density provided the most useful information by itself. The results of our study provide some important leads for future research, which will require better, stratified sampling.

Traumatic myiasis agents in Iran with introducing of new dominant species, Wohlfahrtia magnifica (Diptera: Sarcophagidae)

To study agents of animal wound myiasis in various geographical districts of Fars province. This study has been done in Fars province, located in the southern part of Iran. Sums of 10 358 domestic animals have been visited from April 2011 to March 2012. The infected wounds in any parts of animal body were sampled by means of forceps. About 61% of all animal wound myiasis were caused by larvae of Wohlfahrtia magnifica. The most wound myiasis cases due to this species occurred in central part of Fars province. There wasn't any significant difference between sheep and goat in infestation with myiasis (P>0.05). The infestation rate of myiasis in cattle community was 0.86%. The infestation rate of livestock was lower than other works in Iran and some other countries like Saudi Arabia. Chrysomya bezziana has been mentioned as main myiasis agent in Iran. But in this study it cleared that similarly to some European countries, the common animal myiasis agent in Iran is Wohlfahrtia magnifica. Introducing new species as principal agent for myiasis can help public health and animal husbandry policy makers to prepare sufficient and effective control and/or preventive measures for this disease.

Biolarvacidal activity of methanol extract of Kipahit leaves (Tithonia diversifolia) against larvae of Chrysomya bezziana fly

Myiasis or “belatungan” is the infestation of live human and vertebrate animal tissue with dipterous larvae, Chrysomya bezziana . In general, synthetic insecticides were applied to control the disease. However, it causes negative impact on animal product, so that it is required to find an alternative treatment using herbal medicine. The aim of this study was to access activity of methanol extract of Kipahit leaves ( Tithonia diversifolia ) against various stages of C. bezziana larvae (L1, L2 and L3). Five treatments were applied with five replications, i.e. control/water (P0), 0,5%, 1%, 2% of the extract for PI, PII and PIII, respectively. Another treatment was 0,05% Asuntol for positive control (PIV). Each treatment was added with1% DMSO and twenty larvae were examined for each replication. Bioassay of L1 and L2 was addressed to investigate effect of intestinal toxicity by mixing the extract with Meat-Blood Mixture (MBM) and Larval Rearing Media (LRM) for L1 and L2, respectively. Bioassay of L3 was to investigate effect of contact toxicity through soaking the larvae into the extract solution for 10 seconds followed by incubating in vermiculite at 36oC. All living larvae after being treated by various concentration of the extract were reared to pupae and allowed to emerge as imago. Number of living larvae and pupae, pupae weight and number of imago were observed. All data were analysed using ANOVA followed by Dunnett test at 95% confidential limit. For L2, larval mortality were counted and probit analysed using POLO-PC software, therefore the lethal concentration (LC50 and LC95) and lethal time (LT50 and LT95) were defined. Results demonstrated that 1% of the extract was the most effective concentration which was able to kill the larvae and decrease the pupae weight. It also caused to fail pupation and imago emergence. The further study might be pursued to investigate in vivo assay of the extract in infested livestock. Key Words : Tithonia diversifolia , Myiasis, Chrysomya bezziana , Biolarvasidal

Efficacy of micro-encapsulated of local isolate B. thuringiensis as bio-insectiside for control of myiasis caused by Chrysomya bezziana larvae

B. thuringiensis produces toxic crystal proteine (-endotoksin) which is specific for insect target, but non-toxic to human or non-target organism. Local isolate of B. thuringiensis have been collected from Kediri Regency where endemic area of myiasis. The aim of this study was to formulate the micro-encapsulated of B. thuringiensis using Freund Incomplete Adjuvant (FIA) for protecting crystal in the field and enviromentally friendly. The formulae was then tested in vitro and in vivo. The result of in vitro trial towards seven local isolates of B. thuringiensis showed a decreased in the toxicity of those several isolates. In vivo trial of nine thin tail sheep using chosen isolat of 45.5A and 47.3A, resulted is no significant different for treatment sheep compared to control sheep (P > 0.05). It is concluded that micro-encapsulation method need to be developed according to the way of living the C. bezziana larvae in animal tissues. Key Words : Chrysomya bezziana, Bacillus thuringiensis, Freund Incomplete Adjuvant , Micro-encapsulated

Combining cattle and wound-derived synthetic attractants, POC and Bezzilure B, for sampling Chrysomya bezziana in Indonesia

The myiasis fly Chrysomya bezziana Villeneuve (Diptera: Calliphoridae) is an obligate parasite of body orifices and unnatural openings or wounds of vertebrates. It is a major pest of livestock and responsible for economic losses throughout the Old World. Two chemical lures were tested in the present study to assess their effectiveness at trapping Ch. bezziana. Bezzilure B contains a synthetic lure of 2-mercaptoethanol originally identified from cattle wound volatiles. POC is a synthetic lure comprising 4-methyl phenol, 3-propyl phenol and racemic 1-octen-3-ol, originally identified from volatiles of ox odour and now used to control tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossina). Bezzilure B and POC lures were tested alone, and in combination, in a laboratory free flight room bioassay and in a field trial. Sticky traps were used to capture males and females of Ch. bezziana and to determine the efficacy of the lures. In the laboratory, Bezzilure B caught significantly more male and female flies than Bezzilure B+POC (p<0.001). Similarly, in the field, treatment significantly affected the total number of Ch. bezziana caught (p<0.001) but, contrastingly, Bezzilure B+POC caught significantly more flies than Bezzilure B (p<0.05). The differing results between the laboratory and field may simply reflect the different assays and could suggest different roles of semiochemicals at different operational distances. Although ineffective on its own, POC has a synergistic effect with Bezzilure B to increase fly catches in the field: by proportion, Bezzilure B+POC was 2.17 times as efficient as Bezzilure B for Ch. bezziana, and 1.16–2.68 times as efficient for other flies depending on the species collected.

Use of wing morphometrics to identify populations of the Old World screwworm fly, Chrysomya bezziana (Diptera: Calliphoridae): A preliminary study of the utility of museum specimens

The Old World screwworm (OWS) fly, Chrysomya bezziana (Diptera: Calliphoridae), is a major economic and welfare problem for humans and animals in the Old World tropics. Using a bootstrapped log likelihood ratio test of the output of Procrustes principal components and canonical variates analyses for a small sample of museum specimens from which 19 2D wing landmarks had been collected: (1) a consistent and statistically significant difference exists between landmark configurations derived from wings of pinned specimens and those removed from the body and mounted on slides; (2) a highly statistically significant sexual dimorphism in wing morphometry was identified; and (3) a highly statistically significant difference in wing morphometry between populations of the OWS fly from Africa (Tanzania, South Africa Sudan, Zaire, Zimbabwe,) and Asia (Sumba, Indonesia) exists. These results show that wing orientation and gender must be considered when conducting morphometric investigations of OWS fly wings. The latter result is also consistent with results from previous molecular and morphological studies, which indicate there are two distinct genetic lineages within this species. Wing morphometry holds great promise as a practical tool to aid in identification of the geographical origin of introductions of this important pest species, by providing diagnostic markers to distinguish geographical populations and complement molecular diagnostics.

Relative performance of surveys for the Old World screwworm fly, Chrysomya bezziana, in Iraq based on fly trapping and myiasis monitoring

Fly traps are being used to monitor populations of Old World screwworm (OWS) flies in Iraq. We evaluated trapping systems for seasonality and trap type and compared the results with monitoring of OWS flies using myiases on animals. Fly catches increased during spring and autumn with low catches during the hot, dry summer and the cold winter. The effectiveness of the sticky trap/Swormlure and LuciTrap/Bezzilure for OWS flies could not be determined because no OWS were caught during the comparison period in 2009. The LuciTrap caught more flies of all other species than the sticky trap during this comparison. The numbers of myiases detected on animals in Iraqi provinces from 1996 to 2013 are provided. The high numbers of myiases in most provinces in the late 1990s were followed by lower numbers and subsequent apparent elimination in about half of the provinces. Myiases were detected mainly in sheep (77.0%) and goats (16.7%). A temporal comparison of OWS fly detection with traps and animal myiases in Babil province demonstrated a similar sensitivity and a weak correlation between the two methods. We recommend that both fly trapping and inspection of animals for myiases are used for the detection or monitoring OWS fly populations and that Iraq and the international organisations initiate an area-wide integrated OWS fly program, including the sterile insect technique, with the aim of eradicating the OWS fly from Iraq.

An improved real-time PCR assay for the detection of Old World screwworm flies

The Old World screwworm (OWS) fly, Chrysomya bezziana, is a serious pest of livestock, wildlife and humans in tropical Africa, parts of the Middle East, the Indian subcontinent, south-east Asia and Papua New Guinea. Although to date Australia remains free of OWS flies, an incursion would have serious economic and animal welfare implications. For these reasons Australia has an OWS fly preparedness plan including OWS fly surveillance with fly traps. The recent development of an improved OWS fly trap and synthetic attractant and a specific and sensitive real-time PCR molecular assay for the detection of OWS flies in trap catches has improved Australia's OWS fly surveillance capabilities. Because all Australian trap samples gave negative results in the PCR assay, it was deemed necessary to include a positive control mechanism to ensure that fly DNA was being successfully extracted and amplified and to guard against false negative results. A new non-competitive internal amplification control (IAC) has been developed that can be used in conjunction with the OWS fly PCR assay in a multiplexed single-tube reaction. The multiplexed assay provides an indicator of the performance of DNA extraction and amplification without greatly increasing labour or reagent costs. The fly IAC targets a region of the ribosomal 16S mitochondrial DNA which is conserved across at least six genera of commonly trapped flies. Compared to the OWS fly assay alone, the multiplexed OWS fly and fly IAC assay displayed no loss in sensitivity or specificity for OWS fly detection. The multiplexed OWS fly and fly IAC assay provides greater confidence for trap catch samples returning negative OWS fly results.

Icacy test of hexane extract of Annona squamosa L seeds for Chrysomya bezziana larvae growth in vitro

Chrysomya bezziana is primer agent causing myiasis in livestock and human throughout Africa to Asia. At present, treatment of myiasis using chemical synthetic insecticide causing environment and livestock production contaminations. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of hexane extract of Annona squamosa L seed to kill C. bezziana as botanical insecticide. Three level and method preparation of larvae (L1, L2 and L3) were carried out. Meat blood mixture (MBM) and larval rearing media (LRM) were mixed with hexane extract of A. squamosa L seed and tested to 625 and 750 larvae (L1and L2 respectively), while for L3 625 larvae were soaked in the solution containing the hexane extract. This last preparation was carried out to observe the effect of toxic contact. Each larvae treatment was divided into 5 levels such as negative control using distillation water (PO), given 0.25% hexane extract (P I); 0.50% (P II); 0.75% (P III) and positive control was given with 0.10% Asuntol®. This assay was to know digest toxic effect of hexane extract of A . squamosa L seed for those larvae. Number of 625 instar III larvae (L3) was soaked in the solution containing the hexane extract of A. squamosa L seed for 10 second, placed into vermicullite and incubated on 36oC. This assay was to know contact toxic effect of them. All of larvae were allowed to become pupae. Parameters oberserve were number of larvae death, pupae weight and number of pupae become into fly. The data was analyzed using Anova (5%) and Z test (5%) then smallest significant difference test (BNT 5%). The results showed that 0.50% of hexane extract of A. squamosa L seed was able to decrease pupae weight for L1 and L2 and to cause fail pupae become fly (P 0.05). Key words: Chrysomya bezziana , myasis, srikaya, A. squamosa L, in vitro

Morphology of the first instar larva of obligatory traumatic myiasis agents (Diptera: Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae)

There are only three fly species that are obligate agents of traumatic myiasis of humans and livestock: a single species of flesh fly, Wohlfahrtia magnifica (Sarcophagidae), and two species of blow flies, Chrysomya bezziana and Cochliomyia hominivorax (Calliphoridae). The morphology of their first instar larvae is thoroughly and consistently documented here with light microscopy photographs and scanning electron microscopy micrographs. The following morphological structures are documented: pseudocephalon, antennal complex, maxillary palpus, oral ridges, thoracic and abdominal spinulation, spiracular field, posterior spiracles and cephaloskeleton. New diagnostic features drawn from the cephaloskeleton and the spinulation of abdominal segments, including the anal pad, are discovered and extensively described. Earlier descriptions in the literature are revisited, and major discrepancies between these and the results of the current study are discussed. The present results allow clarification, correction and, especially, complementation of information provided by earlier authors. The relatively distant taxonomic position of all three species is evidence that obligatory myiasis has arisen independently, and the extensively similar morphology in the first instar larvae of Chrysomya bezziana, Cochliomyia hominivorax and W. magnifica in comparison to necrophagous species, especially the enhancement of the anterior part of the cephaloskeleton and the segmental spinulation, is therefore best interpreted as homoplasic adaptations to a life strategy as obligate vertebrate parasites. An identification key for first instar larvae of all obligatory traumatic myiasis agents of mammals is provided.

Oral Myiasis Caused by Chrysomya bezziana in Anterior Maxilla.

Oral myiasis is a rare pathology and is associated with poor oral hygiene, alcoholism, senility, suppurating lesions, and severe halitosis. It arises from invasion of body tissues or cavities of living animals by maggots or larvae of certain dipterian flies. It is mostly reported in developing countries and in the tropics. We hereby report a rare case of oral myiasis in a 70-year-old female with extensive necrotic oral lesion burrowing into the hard palate through which numerous live maggots (larvae) and seen emerging out and discuss the definition, etiology, predisposing factors, classification, and management of the same. Furthermore, the life cycle of the causative organism in the present case, that is, Chrysomya bezziana, has also been discussed.

Management and control of an outbreak of fatal truamatic myiasis due to Chrysomya bezziana in a herd of Persian Fallow Deer (Dama dama mesopotamica)

Cutaneous myiasis caused by the Chrysomya bezziana in Asian and African countries is common in wild and domestic mammals. A herd of Persian fallow deer (n=80, consisting of adult and young male and female animals) with an average age range of 3 months to 6 years was viewed. Observed were 40 deaths putting the heard near to extinction. The animals were found with traumatic cutaneous wounds mostly in one ear, the eyes and head as well as the ventral part of the neck. The ears were necrotised and could no longer remain upright; the wounds were full of maggots of different sizes and stages of development. Based on morphological features, the collected larvae were examined by a central Khuzestan veterinary laboratory and identified as C. bezziana larvae. This is the first ever occurrence of C. bezziana that caused such a population reduction of these wonderful animals in a herd of Persian fallow deer held under the supervision of Iranian Nature Preservation Organization and kept at Helveh Park in Shush county (East-South of Iran) where original ecology and its treatment and control of myiasis have been discussed. This paper is apparently the first report of an infestation of cutaneous myiasis due to C. bezziana in Persian fallow deer. Also we report high infestation Rhipicephalus microplus as an important ectoparasite of these Persian fallow deer that has been never discussed before.

Screw-worm myiasis of prolapsed rectum

Wound myiasis in the Indian subcontinent is most commonly caused by old world screw-worm (Chrysomya bezziana). A 4-year-old malnourished girl presented with full thickness rectal prolapse following acute diarrhea with a large wound and screwworm myiasis of the rectum. Turpentine oil was applied to immobilize the maggots followed by manual extraction. Prolapse was successfully treated by manual reduction followed by strapping of the buttocks. Child was thriving well and gained 2 kg weight in follow up after two weeks. Parents should be educated about taking care of prolapsed rectum.

Extensive oral myiasis

Myiasis is the infestation of live human and vertebrate animal with dipterous larvae which feed on the host's dead or living tissue. Oral myiasis is a rare condition often associated with debilitating conditions. The aim of this article is to describe a rare case report of oral myiasis caused by Chrysomya bezziana in a 14-year-old boy with Down's syndrome and alarming low hemoglobin level of 2 mg%. C. bezziana is found in Africa, southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, and Persian Gulf area. Due to low hemoglobin level, he was transfused with blood followed by manual removal of larvae.