Chloride Penetration Resistance Research Articles

Durability and Recycling of Rubber Concrete

The addition of crumb rubber particles causes a decrease in the compressive strength of concrete. This is particularly observed beyond 3.6% crumb rubber addition with respect to the total weight of the aggregates. The accelerated carbonation also indicates an increase in the CO2 ingress, which is partially due to the low quality of the interface rubber particles-cementitious matrix. On the other hand, the water sealant properties, the chloride penetration resistance and the resistance to freeze and thaw exhibit an increase. This latter feature is mainly due to the implemented ductility of the crumb rubber concrete, which can better adapt to the thermal stress that arises during the freezing action. Furthermore, the addition of recycled crumb rubber up to 25% of the aggregate weight to concrete positively affect the mechanical as well as the durability performance.

Influences of metakaolin and calcined clay blended cement on chloride resistance and electrical resistivity of concrete

There are many different grades of kaolinite clays around the world. Low-grade kaolinite clay is more abundant than high-grade kaolinite clay in various regions. To aim toward the utilization of low-grade kaolinite clay having an original kaolinite content of about 40% to produce calcined clay, this paper investigated the durability properties of concrete incorporating calcined clay produced from high-grade kaolinite clay or high kaolinite content (commercially available metakaolin or CC1) and calcined clay produced from a low-grade kaolinite clay (CC2). Concrete mixtures were designed to have a water-to-binder ratio of 0.60. A fly ash-to-binder ratio of 0.20 and calcined kaolinite clay-to-binder ratios of 0.10 and 0.20 were studied. The chloride penetration resistance and the electrical resistivity of concrete were assessed, while the mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) was utilized in evaluating the pore structure of concrete. The test results revealed that concrete with CC1 and CC2 exhibited superior chloride penetration resistance and chloride binding capacity than OPC and FA20 concretes. Moreover, using a higher calcined clay-to-binder ratio resulted in a more refined pore structure, which significantly enhanced the chloride resistance of concrete. Although CC2 revealed less performance in improving chloride resistance than CC1, it had superior performance compared to fly ash.

Surface Coating Method for Cement-Based Materials to Improve Chloride Ion Penetration Resistance Using Amine-Based CO2 Solvent

The application of coatings on concrete surfaces serves as a protective shield, guarding the structure against chlorides and averting corrosion of the reinforcement, consequently enhancing its durability. This study investigates the resistance of cement mortar samples to chloride ion penetration when coated with an amine-based carbon dioxide (CO2) solvent. Various factors, including monoethanolamine (MEA) concentrations of 1, 10, and 30wt.%; water-to-cement ratios (w/cm) of 0.35, 0.4, and 0.5; coating timings on day 3 and day 27; and pre-conditioning methods such as air drying, are investigated for their impact on the performance of chloride penetration resistance. Specifically, pre-conditioning significantly enhanced the performance of the coatings, especially in samples with a higher w/cm. Coatings applied at an early stage demonstrated superior resistance to chloride ion penetration compared to those applied later in the curing process. Moreover, solutions with higher concentrations of MEA, capturing more CO2, encouraged the resistance against chloride penetration by reducing capillary macropores within the cement mortar samples. Diffusivity analysis of the coated surface layer confirmed the efficacy of the CO2-dissolved MEA solution as a barrier against chloride ion penetration. Optimal performance was possibly observed in the samples produced by a w/cm of 0.4 and their treatment with more than 10% MEA concentrations.

Selection of Optimum Ternary Binder Systems that Enhance the Workability and Durability of Concrete used in Marine Railways

In this study, the improvement of the compressive strength and duradbility of concrete used in marine railways by adding binding agents was investigated. The test speciments used in the study comprised developed product A (DP_A), developed product B (DP_B), Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), admixture A, and admixture B, in the study, the optimum ternary binder systems of the test specimens were identified. An optimum ternary binder system would facilitate the simultaneous enhancement of the durability and workability of concrete used on undersea tunnel linings and bridge structures. The compressive strength of each specimen tested after 16h could easily meet the specified standard target strength (> 3.0_MPa). Moreover, the 7d long term strength of each test specimen exceeded 3.0 MPa. When binders were used, the chloride penetration resistance (DP_A was exceptional)_2.741C (normal) and, 1.490C (low) following-28 and 91days. The surface diffustion coefficient of (DP_B) at 91days 9.12 (× 10-12, m<sup>2</sup>/sec) was higher than that of OPC 9.55 (× 10-12, m<sup>2</sup>/sec). However, the surface diffusion coefficient of (DP_A) was 4.15 (× 10-12, m<sup>2</sup>/sec) which was lower than OPC by approximately 57%, indicating the outstanding durability of DP_A.

Suitability of rapid chloride migration tests for determining the migration coefficient in mortars made from different novel binder types

AbstractThe main cause of corrosion of reinforcing steel, especially in infrastructure structures, is the penetration of chlorides, which can lead to high corrosion rates at the reinforcement steel. A frequently used accelerated test method to evaluate the chloride penetration resistance of concrete and mortars is the rapid chloride migration (RCM) test. The test was initially developed for ordinary Portland cement (OPC) based materials and involves spraying an indicator solution onto split test specimens to determine the penetration depth of the chloride ions. The pore solution compositions of new types of binders differ from OPC‐based materials, which can affect the reaction of the indicator solution. To investigate the suitability of the RCM test, the chloride content in the depth of the color change was determined in mortars made from different types of novel binders. The results show that the test provides reliable results for the binder types with partial replacement of OPC by supplementary cementitious materials. For binder types without OPC, there is a deviation in the migration coefficient due to a differing chloride concentration that triggers the color change.

Effect of Mineral Admixtures and Curing Regimes on Properties of Self-Compacting Concrete

This study investigated the influence of mineral admixtures (fly ash, silica fume, metakaolin) and curing conditions (water immersion, polyethylene glycol, gunny bags, accelerated curing) on the properties of self-compacting concrete (SCC). The rheological properties, compressive strength, chloride penetration resistance, and microstructure were evaluated. Incorporating mineral admixtures improved the workability, strength (up to 53% increase), and durability of SCC compared to plain mixes, with 20% metakaolin replacement optimal. Water immersion curing enhanced the compressive strength (3–15% increase) and chloride resistance (up to 30% decrease in migration coefficient) owing to improved hydration and microstructural refinement. Mineral admixtures reduced the sensitivity of SCC to the curing method. Microstructural analysis showed higher density and additional C-S-H phases with mineral admixtures under wet curing. The study demonstrates that optimized SCC containing appropriate supplementary cementitious materials and proper external curing can achieve high performance.

A Review of Chloride Penetration of Recycled Concrete with Enhancement Treatment and Service Life Prediction.

The application of recycled coarse aggregate (RA) in structural concrete can save non-renewable resources and reduce land occupation. Developing comprehensive knowledge of chloride penetration and service life modeling of recycled coarse aggregate concrete (RAC) is a prerequisite for practice. However, compared with the natural aggregate concrete (NAC), the inferior durability performance, especially chloride penetration resistance, of RAC hinders its application in structural concrete. Therefore, many RAC performance enhancement methods have been proposed. This paper presents a holistic review focused on the chloride penetration of RAC with/without enhancement methods and service life prediction. The current RAC performance enhancement methods are introduced. The improvement effect of the corresponding enhancement methods on the chloride penetration resistance of RAC are discussed and analyzed in turn. Based on the reviewed data on the chloride diffusion coefficient, the modification efficiencies of assorted enhancement methods are summarized. With the hope of promoting RAC application in structural concrete, the current literature on chloride-ingress-based service life prediction for RAC is also overviewed. In addition, the typical influencing factors on chloride transport properties are also discussed, i.e., RA quality. It can be concluded that enhancement techniques can effectively improve the chloride penetration resistance of RAC. The old mortar enhancement or removal methods can improve the chloride penetration resistance by 15-30%, depending on the specific treatment measures. The modification efficiency of the modifier material depends on the specific type and content of the incorporated substance, which ranges from approximately 5% to 95%. The estimated service life of RAC structures decreases with the increasing RA replacement ratio. Finally, concluding remarks are provided concerning future research on the chloride transport behavior of RAC.

Chloride penetration resistance of concrete under dual effects of leaching and stress

Chloride penetration is one of the main causes for the failure of reinforced concrete structures, especially in undersea tunnels, which is also accompanied by stress and seepage water-induced calcium leaching. In this paper, the chloride penetration resistances of concrete under the single and dual effects of stress and calcium leaching were investigated, and the microscopic mechanism was explained by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). The results show that the chloride diffusion depth and chloride content linearly increase with the stress level in the tensile zone, while linearly decrease in the compressive zone, and the change is more obvious in the tensile zone. At stress levels of 15%, 30%, and 45%, the diffusion depth in the tensile zone increases by 11.4%, 36.6%, and 43.5%, respectively, and the increased ratios of chloride content are 1.2%, 11.2%, and 19.4%. There is no significant synergistic effect between stress and calcium leaching on chloride diffusion depth, but it is obvious on chloride content, especially when the tensile stress level is below 15% and the compressive stress level is above 30%, for which the differences caused by considering the synergistic effect or not are approximately 6% and 15%, respectively.

Chloride penetration resistance of ultra-high performance concrete with various multi-walled carbon nanotubes

Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) with outstanding chloride penetration resistance (CPR) exhibits excellent prospects for extending the service life of structures in the marine environment. This study investigates the effects of various types and contents of multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) on the CPR of UHPC, including pristine MWCNT with different sizes, MWCNT with surface modification, and MWCNT with special structures. The results show that 0.25% thick-short pristine MWCNT, 0.5% short hydroxyl functionalized MWCNT, and 0.25% helical MWCNT show more significant enhancement effect, improving the CPR by 74.14%, 72.91%, and 77.17%, respectively. The correlation analysis results suggest a negative linear correlation between the CPR and pore volume of the composites. The C-S-H gels and small capillary pores with a diameter below 50 nm are the significant factors determining the CPR of the composites. This illustrates that the CPR enhancement effects of various types of MWCNT change with the refinement of pore structure of UHPC. The enhancing mechanisms can be attributed to the nano-core effects of MWCNT, reducing the CH crystal size and primary cracks, inhibiting the growth and propagation of microcracks, refining the pore structure, optimizing the compactness of the cement paste matrix and interfacial transition zone, thus reducing the channels for chloride ion diffusion, while increasing the constrictivity and tortuosity of the channels.

Assessment of mechanical, durability and microstructural performance of sulphate-resisting cement concrete over portland cement in the presence of salinity

The current understanding of the sulphate attack mechanism on ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete within the construction sector is not yet well understood. The primary objective of this study is to focus on and discuss how to minimize the sulphate attack on concrete. The main purpose of this research is to better understand and improve the mechanical, durability, and microstructural characteristics of concrete under saline and non-saline/normal environments. This investigation involved the use of artificial seawater in the concrete mixing process and ensuring saline conditions for the concrete specimens in the laboratory. In addition, an approach for assessing the influence of using sulphate-resisting cement (SRC) in concrete to differentiate the performance from OPC concrete is also investigated. Silica fume (SF) is used as a partial cementitious material in SRC concrete by 10% and 20%. The concrete performances were examined by several rheological, mechanical, durability, and microstructural tests and compared the corresponding performances with the SRC-artificial seawater (SRCASW) and OPC-freshwater (OPCFW) concrete. Test results show that the strength of concrete decreased linearly from the OPCFW to SRCASW. Among SRC-artificial seawater concrete mixes, the mix with 10% SF shows the best strength outcomes i.e., 28.84, 36.22, and 37.54 MPa at 7, 28, and 56 days respectively, which is an average of 12.5% higher than the mix with 20% SF. A concrete mix of SRC with 10% SF displays the highest durable behavior, achieving chloride penetration and electrical resistivity at a very low range (936 columbus and 290.7 Ω-m, respectively). In addition, microstructural images of the SRC concrete mixes indicate no visible crack due to sulphate inclusion. An analytical approach has provided a conservative estimate with the experimental results and standard code of practice for predicting mechanical properties. Finally, this study revealed that SRC incorporation in concrete increased the long-term serviceability of the structures against salinity.

Impact of Combined Action of Chloride and Carbonation on Cement-Based Materials with Fly Ash

Integrating waste and industrial by-products into concrete is an alternative way to reduce global cement consumption, enhancing its eco-friendliness. In this context, residues with fly ash have been increasingly utilised. Considering the vulnerability of concrete with fly ash to carbonation and, at the same time, its high resistance to chlorides, it is important to investigate the behaviour of these concretes under their combined actions. For this purpose, an experimental investigation was conducted, studying mortar and concrete specimens with 40% replacement of cement with fly ash. These specimens were subjected to a combination of actions (Cl− and CO2) in two phases: initially through immersion and drying tests, and subsequently through a combination of accelerated tests. Concerning the chloride impact study, free and total chloride profiles were studied. Concerning the impact of carbonation, colourimetric and chemical tests were used. The results demonstrate a significant influence of combined action not only on chloride penetration in cement-based materials with fly ash but also on the development of a carbonation front. Exposure of cement-based materials with fly ash to environments with high Cl− and CO2 content sequentially may lead, on the one hand, to an increase in carbonation resistance. However, on the other hand, it may result in a substantial reduction in chloride penetration resistance.

Freeze-thaw, chloride penetration and carbonation resistance of natural and recycled aggregate concrete containing rice husk ash as replacement of cement

This study investigated the effect of using rice husk ash (RHA) as replacement of cement (i.e., replacement ratios of 0%, 10%, 20% and 30%) on the durability of natural aggregate concrete (NAC) and recycled aggregate concrete (RAC). We examined the freeze-thaw resistance, chloride penetration resistance, and carbonation resistance of NAC and RAC (with 50% recycled coarse aggregate replacement ratio). It was found that during the freeze-thaw process, both NAC and RAC showed an overall weight increase, which was further enhanced by the addition of RHA. Meanwhile, the compressive strength of NAC was reduced more obviously than that of RAC after 100 freeze-thaw cycles. A replacement of 10% cement with RHA resulted in larger reduction in strength loss for NAC (by 36%) compared to RAC (by 4%). As the RHA replacement ratio increased, the chloride penetration resistance of RACs was improved more rapidly than that of NACs, and the difference in the total charge passed between NACs and RACs also decreased considerably. In addition, an increase in the RHA replacement ratio led to an increase in the carbonation coefficient of NAC. Conversely, in the case of RAC, the carbonation coefficient displayed an initial decrease at a 10% RHA replacement ratio, followed by a subsequent upward trend, indicating a positive impact of RHA on preventing carbonation for RAC.

Durability properties of lightweight concrete with ceramic mould casting waste

As economies and industrialisation have grown, the foundry industry has produced a significant amount of ceramic mould casting waste (CMCW). To promote resource utilisation, this study investigates recycling CMCW as a partial replacement for lightweight aggregates in lightweight concrete. The durability of lightweight concrete mixes with varying CMCW content was studied using surface electrical tests, ultrasonic pulse velocity measurements, non-steady-state accelerated chloride penetration tests and carbonation resistance experiments. The results indicate that a lightweight concrete containing 80% CMCW exhibited greater density and uniformity, greater resistance to chloride ion penetration and better resistance to carbonation. These findings suggest that CMCW can be an effective and sustainable replacement for lightweight aggregate in lightweight concrete, improving durability and environmental performance. This research contributes to the development of sustainable construction materials and provides insights for the use of CMCW in the foundry industry.

Chloride Ion Penetration Resistance of Reactive Powder Concrete with Mineral Admixtures

This study employed the rapid chloride ion penetration test and the salt spray erosion method to examine electric flux changes in mineral-admixed reactive powder concrete (RPC). Variations in the chloride ion content and diffusion coefficient under different erosion durations and depths were also investigated. The impact of mineral admixtures on the chloride penetration resistance was explored. Notably, after mixing fly ash (FA) and granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS), the electric flux values of RPC of each group were significantly reduced, and the electric flux values of RPC of the mixed group were significantly lower than those of the single mixed group and the reference group, in which the electric flux of FA10G10 was reduced by 85.2% compared to the control group; at the same erosion cycle and depth, the chloride ion content and diffusion coefficient of the mixed group were significantly lower than the control group. It shows that the reasonable compounding of mineral admixtures can better exert the "superposition effect", improve the compactness inside the matrix, and effectively reduce the chloride ion penetration rate. Considering comprehensively, the FA10G10 group has the best chloride penetration ion resistance effect.

Mechanical properties, durability and self-healing performance of mortar containing double-layers capsules

To improve the self-healing performance of cementitious materials and minimize the negative impact of self-healing materials on mortar, a novel type of double-layer capsules is developed in this study. The developed double-layer capsule includes the rapid hardening cement as the internal wall and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as the external wall. To evaluate its impact on mortar, two factors (i.e., capsule size and dosage) are considered and the correspondent experiments of investigating mechanical properties, durability, and self-healing performance are conducted. Experimental results present that the double-layer capsules reduce the flexural and compressive strength of mortar. With a reduced capsule size and a small ratio of the dosage, the negative impact the capsule gradually weakens. Moreover, the mixing of capsules slightly decreases the chloride penetration resistance and carbonation resistance of mortar specimens, while improves the frost resistance and impermeability greatly when the dosage is within 10%. Furthermore, the capsules can significantly improve the self-healing capacity of mortar. Especially when the capsule size is 2.36–3.2 mm and the dosage is 10%, the healing effect on matrix is highest. In addition, the XRD\\SEM\\XCT results indicated that the healing products mainly include C-S-H gel, CaCO3, Aft and Mg-containing compounds, the filling and bonding effects of which realize the automatic and effective recovery of matrix properties.

Corrosion Studies on Ternary Blended High Performance Self-Compacting Concretes Containing Fly Ash and Graphene Oxide

Effective utilization of industrial byproducts as mineral admixtures and filler materials in cement concrete has been a practice to develop sustainable construction materials. The use of mineral admixtures like fly ash, silica fume, ground granulated blast furnace slag etc. as a partial replacement of cements have proved to improve the performance characteristics of concrete through reduced porosity and improved mechanical characteristics through pozzolanic effect and filler effect. Moreover, extensive research in the recent period has been mainly focused to study the effect of nano-additions in concrete. The present work was focused to assess the performance of ternary blended high performance self-compacting concretes with varied quantities of graphene oxide additions. Control concrete of M60 grade was designed in correspondence to IS-10262:2019 containing fly ash, and three other concretes mixes were formulated with 0.03%, 0.06% and 0.09% addition of Graphene Oxide (By weight of total cementitious material). The specimens were cast and tested at different ages to determine rheological, mechanical and durability characteristics by evaluating slump flow, Compressive Strength, Split Tensile Strength, Absorption- Desorption characteristics, Rapid Chloride Penetration Test values and resistance to accelerated corrosion cracking. Moreover, the specimens were assessed for corrosion resistance by conducting a cyclic wet – dry test, where parameters like UPV & depth of chloride penetration in concrete were measured. Results depict the fact that addition of Graphene Oxide improves the durability characteristics to a great extent. The optimum results for most of parameters were obtained at 0.06% of Graphene Oxide addition in comparison to remaining mix proportions.

Characterization of permeability of seawater iron tailings mortar based on inter-pore connection

Permeability is an important factor affecting the durability as the connection between pores provides a channel for water and ion permeation. However, the mechanism governing the influence of inter-pore connection is still unclear. This paper quantitatively calculates the connectivity and complexity of inter-pore connections based on pore structure scan images, and investigates the effect of different aggregates on the resistance of mortar to chloride-ion migration. Seawater ordinary mortar (SOM) and seawater iron tailings mortar (STM) were prepared. Pore scans and tests for chloride migration coefficient and chloride-ion content were conducted. Based on the maximum Feret diameter of the pores, the complexity index, Kci, was defined to characterize the complexity of inter-pore connections, and this extends existing calculation methods from one-dimensional to two-dimensional in nature. However,the complexity index correlates with the chloride migration coefficient and chloride-ion content well for seawater ordinary mortar only but not for seawater iron tailings mortar. Therefore, the critical image diameter, dic, was defined to characterize the connectivity of pores. This also overcomes the shortcomings of the MIP method, which does not give the spatial pore distribution. Last, the modified complexity index, Kmci, which modifies the complexity index using the critical image diameter, was presented. It is shown to correlate with test results well for both seawater ordinary and iron tailings mortars. Replacing Kci with Kmci greatly improves the linear correlation of complexity of inter-pore connection with chloride penetration resistance for seawater iron tailings mortar, with the correlation coefficient R increasing from 0.45 to 0.88.

Suitability of marble powders in production of high strength concrete

A tremendous amount of non-biodegradable waste is created during mining and processing tasks of layered stones like marble. Over time, this has become a global problem because it harms the environment in multiple ways. Hence, it is necessary to find an alternate way to securely dispose and reuse marble wastes. The construction sector is one of the significant consumers of natural resources for the production of material binders and aggregates. As a result, in recent years, number of researchers have carried out studies in which various kinds of marble waste have been incorporated into concrete with the intention of substituting either cement or aggregates or both. This paper presents the effect of two locally sourced waste marble powders Kadapa marble powder (KMP) and Bethamcherla marble powder (BMP) as partial replacement of cement on mechanical and durability properties of high strength concrete (HSC). Their effect at different replacement levels in HSC is evaluated in compressive, indirect tensile and flexural strengths, elastic modulus, chloride penetration resistance and freeze–thaw durability properties. Micro-structural investigation is also conducted to evaluate their impact on the matrix of HSC containing waste marble powders as additional cementitious materials. Results show that the HSC consisting of KMP and BMP content of 10% and 15%, respectively exhibited higher mechanical and durability properties than the control HSC. Micro-structural investigation also supports this finding. It can be concluded that the use of marble powders as partial replacement of cement does not have any adverse impact on the properties of concrete. The use of KMP and BMP reduces the vast amount of energy required to produce cement, cost and time with reduction in environmental hazards.

Effect of carbonation duration on properties of recycled aggregate concrete

The use of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA) produced from waste concrete in new concrete is an effective way to realize the recycling of construction and demolition waste. The utilization of accelerated carbonation to enhance RCA has attracted a lot attention because it can enhance performance of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) and has potential for CO2 sequestration. This study systematically investigated the influences of the duration of pressurized carbonation on the properties of RCA, RCA-new mortar interface, and RAC. The results showed that water absorption of carbonated RCA (CRCA) decreased with the increase of carbonation duration. But the beneficial effect of carbonation was less obvious after 1-day carbonation because most of calcium hydroxide and Ca-rich calcium silicate hydrates in RCA had reacted with CO2 within 1 day. After using CRCA, the improvement in different performance indicators of RAC was dependent on different factors. The enhancement in compressive strength and chloride penetration resistance of RAC prepared with CRCA were dependent on the reduced porosity of CRCA. That was why they correlated with the water absorption of CRCA as carbonation duration increased. However, the decrease in initial absorption of water of RAC was mainly dependent on the denser surface layer of CRCA, rather than the reduced porosity of CRCA. This is because the denser surface layer can change water path from “penetrating through RCA” to “passing around RCA”. It is recommended to use 1-day carbonation to enhance RCA, which might have higher cost-effectiveness.

Performance characterization and optimization of cement-lithium powder-grain slag composite cementitious materials

In this study, cement, lithium powder and grain slag were selected for compounding design with the aim of developing high performance cement-lithium powder-grain slag composite cementitious materials (CLG). Based on Mixture Design, 13 mixing ratios were designed and used to study the effect of CLG on the workability, mechanical properties, carbonation resistance, and chlorine ion penetration resistance of concrete through response surface plots (3D Plot), and a mathematical model between concrete properties and CLG was fitted. The hydration products and microscopic morphology were investigated using x-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The results showed that the single mixing of lithium powder had a positive effect on the 28d compressive strength and carbonation resistance of concrete, but it was unfavorable to the fluidity and chlorine ion penetration resistance of concrete. Single admixture of grain slag has mainly improved the workability of concrete. The highest 28d compressive strength (47.3 MPa) of concrete with excellent workability and durability was achieved when cement, lithium powder and grain slag were compounded in the ratio of 75 %, 20 % and 5 %. Microanalysis showed that the hydration reaction at 28d was higher when lithium powder and grain slag were compounded, producing more hydrated calcium silicate (C-S-H) and enhancing the compactness of the concrete matrix. As a result, the late strength, chloride penetration resistance and carbonation resistance of the concrete were optimized. The results of multi-objective optimization showed that the best overall performance of concrete was obtained with the ratio of cement, lithium powder and grain slag of 79.3 %: 10.3 %: 10.4 %. Therefore, the design method of CLG provides new ideas for the efficient utilization of industrial wastes and the development of other high-performance composite cementitious materials.