Hill Tracts Research Articles

Heterogeneity in prevalence of subclinical Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax infections but no parasite genomic clustering in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

BackgroundMalaria remains endemic in Bangladesh, with the majority of cases occurring in forested, mountainous region in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT). This area is home to Bengali and diverse groups of indigenous people (Pahari) residing largely in mono-ethnic villages.Methods1002 individuals of the 9 most prominent Pahari and the Bengali population were randomly selected and screened by RDT and qPCR. Parasites were genotyped by msp2 and deep sequencing of 5 amplicons (ama1-D3, cpmp, cpp, csp, and msp7) for Plasmodium falciparum (n = 20), and by microsatellite (MS) typing of ten loci and amplicon sequencing of msp1 for Plasmodium vivax (n = 21). Population structure was analysed using STRUCTURE software. Identity-by-state (IBS) was calculated as a measure of parasite relatedness and used to generate relatedness networks.ResultsThe prevalence of P. falciparum and P. vivax infection was 0.7% by RDT (P. falciparum 6/1002; P. vivax 0/1002, mixed: 1/1002) and 4% by qPCR (P. falciparum 21/1002; P. vivax 16/1002, mixed: 5/1002). Infections were highly clustered, with 64% (27/42) of infections occurring in only two Pahari groups, the Khumi and Mro. Diversity was high; expected heterozygosity was 0.93 for P. falciparum and 0.81 for P. vivax. 85.7% (18/21) of P. vivax and 25% (5/20) of P. falciparum infections were polyclonal. No population structure was evident for either species, suggesting high transmission and gene flow among Pahari groups.ConclusionsHigh subclinical infection prevalence and genetic diversity mirror ongoing transmission. Control activities should be specifically directed to Pahari groups at greatest risk.

Estimation of Stature from Index Finger Length and Sexual Dimorphism in Adult Chakma Males and Females

Background: Estimation of stature from index finger length in adult Chakma males and females and also to observe gender difference was the main purpose of this study. Materials and methods: It was a cross-sectional analytical study conducted over 104 adult healthy Chakma males and females (52 males and 52 females) residents of Chattogram Hill Tracts area in the year 2016 and 2017. Subject selection was done by convenience sampling technique and stature and index finger length were measured and data were documented in SPSS version 19. Results: A highly significant (p<0.001) gender difference was found in index fingers length. Mean Multiplication Factor (M.F.) to estimate stature in males was 25.1239 and 25.1149 for right and left index finger respectively and in female was 25.2505 and 25.2135 for right and left index finger respectively. A highly significant (p<0.001) positive correlation was found between stature and right index finger length 0.571 and left index finger length 0.576 in Chakma males. The stature and right index finger length 0.630 and left index finger length 0.679 in Chakma females respectively. Conclusion: This study found multiplication factors for right and left index finger length to estimate stature in a correct way and found a linear correlation between stature and index fingers length. There was significant gender difference present between index fingers length in between adult Chakma males and females. IAHS Medical Journal Vol 5(1), June 2022; 22-26

Evaluation of toxicological, anti-allergic and neuropharmacological activities of <em>Bridelia stipularis</em>: <em>In-vivo</em> and in-silico studies

Bridelia stipularis locally known as ‘Harinhara’ native in hill tract area. The plant is traditionally used in cough, asthma and catarrh by the Chakma ethnic people of Bangladesh. In this study, we investigated the toxicological, anti-allergic, neuropharmacological potential of leaves extract and profiling of its bioactive polyphenols by HPLC for in-silico molecular docking. Phytochemical test confirmed the existence of phytochemicals including tannin, flavonoid, saponin, alkaloid, glycoside etc. In toxicity study, the extract was safe up to 3 g/kg oral dose in mice. The studied showed no organ specific toxicity at 500 mg/kg oral dose. Anti-allergic activity performed by using TDI-induced allergic mice model. The extract significantly reduced the TDI-induced allergy like symptoms such as scratching, sneezing, swelling (P < 0.05). Additionally, the extract also ameliorated the leukocytes count in blood and bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid. The neuropharmacological activity test was conducted by following the open field method in mice model, at both doses of extract at 300 and 500 mg/kg showed mild CNS depressant effect. HPLC profiling identified the presence of seven phenolic compounds, among these rutin hydrate demonstrated the best docking score of -7.4 kcal/mol same as anti-allergic drug against (H1R). On the other hand exhibited rosmarinic acid and myricetin -7.9 and -7.8 kcal/mol against GABAA whereas standard CNS drug showed -7.7 kcal/mol. In conclusion, B. stipularis is safe and rich in different polyphenolic compounds which were found effective against diseases.

Conservation of Natural Resources and Biodiversity Management In Bandarban, Bangladesh

The Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) is situated in the Southeastern Bangladesh having an area of 13,295 km2. Bandarban is one of the hill districts of CHT with diverse natural resources and ethnic communities. This paper is based on the review of published papers, reports, books related to Bandarban district of CHT giving emphasis on the landscape, natural resources, and the indigenous peoples in the CHT. The available information is synthesized to understand the overall state of natural resources degradation with special focus on land, soil, forest, fisheries, and livestock, etc. The traditional agricultural system of jhum cultivation is not sustainable due to population pressure, reduction of fallow period and soil degradation. The paper also presented the major causes of resource destruction along with the opportunities and challenges to the existing natural resource management in Bandarban. The prolonged conflict of land tenure and settlement of plain land people needs to be addressed at priority basis for the betterment of the hill people. J. Biodivers. Conserv. Bioresour. Manag. 2021, 7(2): 84-94

Seasonal Variation of Water Qualities in River, Lake and Waterfall in Rangamati and Khagrachhari Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

This study was conducted to investigate the seasonal variation of water qualities for drinking and conservation of aquatic organisms from river, lake and waterfalls in Chattogram Hill Tracts of Bangladesh during pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon seasons from the period of March 2021 to February 2022. Water samples were collected from four sampling locations and analysed in the research laboratory of the Department of Environmental Science and Resource Management, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University. Results were recorded on the parameters like temperature, EC, TDS, DO, BOD, pH, total alkalinity and total hardness in Kaptai Lake, Chengi River, and Shuvolong and Risang Waterfalls. The study revealed that the temperature, EC, TDS, BOD and pH were higher in pre-monsoon than monsoon followed by post-monsoon seasons. On the other hand, total alkalinity and total hardness were higher in post-monsoon than monsoon followed by pre-monsoon seasons. In the waterfalls, DO was higher in monsoon season when compared to pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons. The study provides baseline data on physiochemical water qualities in lake, river and waterfalls at the Chattogram Hill Tracts, which contributes to the long-term conservation of those aquatic ecosystems for human consumption and fisheries management.

Farmers’ perception towards the changes of land distribution in the Bandarban hill district of Bangladesh

The Chattogram Hill Tracts (CHT) are witnessing an escalating pace of land use change as a result of population dynamics, economic development, climatic change, greater accessibility, and agricultural technical advancements. The study was conducted in Rwanggchhari and Ruma upazila of Bandarban district, Bangladesh. This study explored farmers’ perception towards land use change and the factors contributing to their perception. Following a proportionate random sampling technique, a total of 120 households were sampled and survey was administered through a predesigned close ended questionnaire. A substantial number of respondents (54%) were more than 40 years old, of whom 51% were educated with an average family size was five. The respondents had an average annual income of BDT 91830. An average land holding was 3.59 acres were seen in the study area and these lands were occupied with agricultural, forest, vegetable lands and also with flat and hilly lands. Meanwhile, 98% farmers maintained medium to higher perception towards the changes of land distribution. In addition, out of eight attributes, three attributes, namely, educational attainment, agricultural training received and hill land ownership had significant influence on the perception of land use change by the respondents. The findings of the study can be utilized by the policy makers and planners of the country to formulate future land distribution policy of the CHT in future. Ann. Bangladesh Agric. (2022) 26 (1) : 75-89

Risk factors associated with self-medication among the indigenous communities of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh.

In developing countries like Bangladesh, self-medication has become a predicament associated with health risks and clinical complications. To date, no studies have been conducted on the practice of self-medication among the indigenous population living in Chittagong Hill Tract (CHT). This study was aimed to determine the prevalence of self-medication and analyzing the factors associated with it among the indigenous population in CHT. This cross-sectional study was conducted from late October to early December 2020; among different indigenous group populations residing in the three districts of CHT aged 18 or more. A pre-tested and semi-structured questionnaire was developed to collect data on socio-demographic characteristics, health status, frequency of self-medication, reasons for self-medication in last one year, as well as other variables. Multivariate logistic regression was performed to assess associated factors with self-medication. A total of 1350 people from different indigenous populations were interviewed, among whom 49.9% practiced self-medication. The rate of self-prescribed antibiotics usage (80.9%) was significantly higher compared to other drugs. Self-prescribed medications were mostly used for diarrhea and food poisoning (60.6%), cough, cold and fever (51.4%), and headache (51.4%). A common source of self-prescribed medicines was community or retail pharmacy and the most reported reason for self-prescribed medication was the long-distance of healthcare facilities from home. The prevalence of self-medication is substantially high among indigenous people and the effect is alarming. Particular concern is the misuse of antibiotics and analgesic drugs. Increasing awareness among the population of the negative effect of self-medication and implementation of proper policies and actions are urgently needed to prevent self-medication among indigenous population in Bangladesh.

The Tribals and the National Uprising of 1857 in Rajputana States

The scholars have paid scant attention to the role of the Bhil and the Mina tribes of southern Rajputana States of Mewar, Banswara and Partapgarh in the 1857 national war of independence. These tribals were dissatisfied with the settlement of British paramountcy in the Rajputana States in 1818 as it was responsible for depriving them of their right to collect rakhwali (protection tax) from the neighbouring States, restraining their movements by stationing the Mewar Bhil Corps and the Kota Contingent in tribal regions, creating a fissure in their society by recruiting a section of tribals as soldiers in these Political Corps and, above all, penalising them as criminals for witch swinging and witch murdering in contravention of their community resolution. Disgruntled with the series of these innovations the Bhil chiefs, such as those of Pahara Bhomat in Mewar Hill Tracts, Onkar Rawat of Mowree Khera and Dalla Rawat of Sodulpur in Banswara State, and the Minas of Uncha village (in Jahazpur district of Mewar State) on the border of Deoli cantonment, revolted to end the British rule under the spell of the 1857 rebellion of the native sepoys of the British regiments at Neemuch, Nasirabad and Mhow cantonments. These tribal uprisings spread, far and wide, in Banswara, Partapgarh and Mewar Hill Tracts in southern Rajputana on the spur of Rawat Kesri Singh of Salumbar, a powerful Sisodia Rajput jagirdar of Mewar State, the Vilayati mercenaries (Makranis and Arabs) and Maratha General Tantia Tope who campaigned with his rabble force throughout Rajputana States between June 1858 and April 1859 for seeking support of people to overthrow the British government and also for punishing those Rajput rulers who had sided with it and surrendered to it the rebel leaders. Of course, the British government suppressed the tribal rebellions with the support of the Rajput rulers of Mewar, Partapgarh and Dungarpur States, but the prolongation of the 1857 tribal rebellions in southern Rajputana even after the restoration of British power in the imperial city of Delhi (September 1857) and in Lucknow (March 1858) confirmed the contention of the eminent historian V. D. Savarkar that the 1857 rebellion was the Indian War of Independence. Thus, the tribals have left a legacy of their valour and patriotic fervour during the 1857 national war of independence in Princely Rajputana.

The Impact of COVID-19 on Micro, Small, and Medium-Sized Tourism Enterprises: A Study on Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

The massive outbreak of the COVID-19 epidemic hit the world hard and Bangladesh is one the most affected countries by this pandemic. The condition of micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) in the tourism sector in Bangladesh was worse during the outbreak. This project aims to examine the possible impact of the COVID-19 epidemic on micro, small, and medium-sized tourism enterprises (MSMTEs) in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), Bangladesh. This research is exploratory and descriptive in nature. Both primary and secondary data have been collected and analyzed to prepare this paper. Data were collected from 150 respondents and the collected data was analyzed by using SPSS (20) and MS Excel software. The outcome of the regression analysis shows that out of eleven independent variables seven of them have a significant influence on the dependent variable (overall impact of Covid-19 on small, medium, and micro-enterprises). These seven variables are employee turnover, challenges to new recruitment, decrease in income, business growth, a decrease in customers, business relationship hamper, and social stress on the entrepreneur. On the basis of the research findings, some of the strategies for the MSMTEs have been recommended at the end of this paper.

A new subspecies of the Asiatic softshell turtle Amyda ornata (Gray, 1861) from its northern distribution range

We describe a new subspecies ofAmyda ornata(Gray, 1861) from the southeastern parts of Bangladesh (Chittagong hill tracts), adjacent regions of north-eastern India (Mizoram, Assam and Tripura) and Myanmar, based on morphological characteristics. The holotype comprises some skeletal elements held by the Natural History Museum of Vienna; the five paratypes consist of living specimens in the private collection of PP “Turtle Island” (a turtle conservation zoo in Graz, Austria). After the genetic identity had been determined in a previous investigation, the morphological description was carried out by examining living specimens and photo documents; and additionally, by evaluating the computed tomography of further living animals with exact location data.Amyda ornata jonglissp. nov. differs from the otherAmyda ornatasubspecies mainly by its relatively compact and stout head in subadults and adults, its paler, greyish and less contrasting colouration missing distinct bright yellow pigments, ochre-coloured irises, and the existence of more distinct tubercles in the neck region and in the posterior section of the carapace than both other subspecies ofAmyda ornata. The tubercles along the front of the carapace protrude clearly in subadult and adult specimens. This softshell turtle is heavily exploited within its limited distribution. Therefore, special comments on conservation aspects are given together with a final discussion on distribution and systematics.

Problems and prospects of fish farming in the Chattogram Hill Tracts of Bangladesh: Community-based aquaculture might be a right choice

The study was carried out in Matiranga Upazila, Bandarban district, which is considered one of Bangladesh's major hill tract regions. The study aimed to identify present farming conditions, prospects, and problems and suitable solutions to the problems of fish farming. Different participatory rapid appraisal tools such as focus group discussion, field visits, and farmers' interviews were used to collect relevant fish farming information in the study area. The polyculture method was the most practised aquaculture method. Among the selected farms, eleven fish species were identified as culture species. The transportation cost for seeds purchased from remote areas was high (11% of total seed cost). The average transportation-related mortality of fish fry and fingerlings was 7.2% and 2.8%. Feed cost was found as the major cost (58.4%) in aquaculture. Costs and revenue for fish production per decimal varied from BDT 311 to 3528 and BDT 23 to 1268. Utilization of vacant lake, youth and women engagement, integrated aquaculture, the desire of people to engage in aquaculture, and available human resources were found as significant prospects. The major problems identified were lack of hatchery, high feed cost, lack of stakeholder linkage, lack of capital for fish farming, and lack of proper knowledge, guidelines, and consultancy for fish culture. A community-based aquaculture model was proposed to overcome the present challenges and problems in the study area. The model may help to expand aquaculture and thus improve the livelihood and socio-economic status of the people of the hilly areas of Bangladesh.

Violent peace: community relations in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) in Bangladesh after the Peace Accord

ABSTRACT The 1997 Peace Accord in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) promised to bring an end to decades of violence in the region. However, 25 years later, the region is still experiencing social conflict between indigenous Pahari people and Bengalis, who have migrated and settled in large numbers since the 1970s. This paper examines the reasons for the continuation of social conflict through a survey on community attitudes and relations. The survey findings show that the legacy of migration and conflict in the CHT is still evident in starkly different views on resources, conflict, and community relations. These findings support the argument that the migration of people with different ethnic backgrounds into regions inhabited by ethnic minorities causes competition for resources that may generate conflict and violence with long-lasting consequences.

DNA‐based assessment of environmental degradation in an unknown fauna: The freshwater macroinvertebrates of the Indo‐Burmese hotspot

Abstract New methods are required for biomonitoring of poorly known tropical ecosystems, but biological assessments of environmental status are limited by insufficient information on taxonomy, composition and ecology of local communities. The current work applies DNA‐based assessment to establish the impact of various types of anthropogenic disturbances on the freshwater macroinvertebrates in an understudied biodiversity hotspot in South Asia, an area that attracts increasing attention for the loss of aquatic ecosystems. We sampled 16 river systems in the Chittagong Hill Tracts region of Bangladesh and characterised habitat intactness based on a set of 14 environmental parameters associated with habitat quality and human activities. Whole‐community metabarcoding was used to investigate the distribution of hypothetical species‐level clusters (Operational Taxonomic Units, OTUs) across sites of different impacts. We found &gt;900 DNA clusters of insects, decapods and molluscs, dominated by Diptera, which revealed significant variation (p &lt; 0.001) in richness across sites. The presumed sensitive Ephemeroptera‐Plecoptera–Trichoptera (EPT) represented 15.6% of total OTU richness. The type and strength of anthropogenic stressors varied greatly across streams but did not affect total OTU diversity. In contrast, EPT richness decreased by ~50% in response to habitat degradation. Partial‐network analysis revealed 26 OTUs that may serve as potential indicators for either good or poor ecological status. Overall, our results document high diversity, local endemicity and pronounced responses to disturbance in these largely unexplored but threatened habitats. Synthesis and applications. The proposed methodology combines local habitat surveys across sites of various degrees of disturbance with species‐level metabarcoding, as a model for biological evaluation of water bodies in poorly known and inaccessible places across the world. Implemented here for the Indo‐Burmese hotspot, the approach will have great value for applied conservation management as a step towards building a biomonitoring system in this region where currently little is known about the taxonomy, diversity and endemicity in both intact and disturbed ecosystems.

Dam(n)ing the hills: Indigeneity, American aid, and Cold War politics in the Kaptai Dam, East Pakistan, 1957–1964

AbstractIn the late 1950s, work began on the Kaptai hydroelectric dam, a massive project in the verdant Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT), an area bordering northeast India, east Pakistan (today Bangladesh), and Burma (now Myanmar), largely populated by indigenous hill communities. At the time, the CHT was situated in newly created East Pakistan, and Kaptai had become a focal site for the development of hydroelectric power. In the process, Pakistan relied upon international networks, including global aid organizations and American multinational construction firms, to fulfil its development dreams; in return the United States found a useful ally to contain Soviet influence and the growth of communism in Asia. In the high stakes exchange of economic aid for political alliance-making, East Pakistani administrators, US State Department officials, and American corporations became inherently entwined in a shared vision of development, to the detriment of local ecologies and the indigenous peoples who lived within them. This article will explore how both the public and private sectors used the language of primitivity, wildness, and atavism to marginalize minority ‘tribal’ populations in the devastating name of development and modernity.

Water Scarcity and Sufferings of The Tribal People: A Study on Bandarban Hilly Area

The aim of this study is to provide an extensive layout of water scarcity and the challenges that face the tribal people in hill tract area. Considering the nature of the problem, this study has followed the stratified sampling method of a total of forty respondents of Chimbuk hill area in Bandarban district. Primary data were collected through a structured questionnaire with the assistance of a number of trained university students of this area under the direct supervision of the author. Besides these, secondary sources of national and international level have been used in this study. In addition to the study found that lack of infrastructural facilities as well as not having deep water bodies force them to depend on water fall. These are the main source of water supply which is responsible for sufferings of the hilly area as water fall dry out in winter season. The study has made an exploratory study and seek to provide an insight into different types of challenges as well as the adverse effects of such issues. So, obviously the study will provide an exceptional idea and intensity of the problem. Though innumerable studies of water scarcity of hilly area have been published, fundamental issues are not properly focused on. Therefore, it would genuinely help for future study as well as formulating the policy of the development of the hilly area.

Water Scarcity and Sufferings of The Tribal People: A Study on Bandarban Hilly Area

The aim of this study is to provide an extensive layout of water scarcity and the challenges that face the tribal people in hill tract area. Considering the nature of the problem, this study has followed the stratified sampling method of a total of forty respondents of Chimbuk hill area in Bandarban district. Primary data were collected through a structured questionnaire with the assistance of a number of trained university students of this area under the direct supervision of the author. Besides these, secondary sources of national and international level have been used in this study. In addition to the study found that lack of infrastructural facilities as well as not having deep water bodies force them to depend on water fall. These are the main source of water supply which is responsible for sufferings of the hilly area as water fall dry out in winter season. The study has made an exploratory study and seek to provide an insight into different types of challenges as well as the adverse effects of such issues. So, obviously the study will provide an exceptional idea and intensity of the problem. Though innumerable studies of water scarcity of hilly area have been published, fundamental issues are not properly focused on. Therefore, it would genuinely help for future study as well as formulating the policy of the development of the hilly area.

Reflexivity Conducting Mixed Methods Research on Indigenous Women’s Health in Lower and Middle-Income Countries - An Example From Bangladesh

Indigenous women’s health in low and middle-income countries continues to experience exclusions from the mainstream context and has remained underrepresented in health research, including qualitative research. Based on mixed methods research (comprising qualitative and quantitative methods) into Indigenous women in Bangladesh, this article addresses the reflexivity of a non-Indigenous researcher studying Indigenous women’s health issues in the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. As reflexivity is a crucial strategy to ensure rigor in qualitative research, understanding how the characteristics and experiences of the study may influence the research process is of paramount importance. For non-Indigenous researchers working in an Indigenous context, the imperative to understand one’s impact and position within the research becomes even more critical. Unfortunately, non-Indigenous researchers often avoid providing appropriate detail on reflexivity aspects in conducting research, particularly mixed-method research, among Indigenous communities in low- and middle-income countries like Bangladesh. In this reflexive evaluation, the researchers of this mixed method study evaluate the introspective reflexivity; reflect on the pre-research stage in developing collaborative and negotiated design and reflect on positionality during fieldwork and data analysis to consider interpersonal and collective dynamics during the research process. Strategies are offered to harvest the benefits of the researcher’s familiarity with the subject and limit any unfavorable consequences. Directions for future research include integration of research methods, using qualified Indigenous researchers, engaging Indigenous community leaders, and collecting data using native language to respect and value the culture and voice of Indigenous communities.

Diversity and Phytosociology of Natural Regeneration in a Sub-tropical Forest of Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh: Implications for Conservation

ABSTRACT Natural regeneration in tropical forests is considered an essential part of forest restoration efforts; however, it is often under-estimated where the main focus has traditionally been on tree planting. This study assessed natural regeneration and its potential for the conservation of native tree species in Sitapahar Forest Reserve, Bangladesh. We established 99 temporary plots (2 m × 2 m each) in three canopy classes, namely dense canopy (DC, 70–100% canopy coverage), moderate canopy (MC, 40–70%), and open canopy (OC, <40%). In each plot, regenerating tree species were counted, identified, and height (m), collar diameter (cm), and diameter at breast height (dbh, cm) were measured. We identified 79 regenerating tree species under 31 plant families of which 61 were found in DC areas followed by 56 and 36 in MC and OC areas, respectively. Most of the species in DC areas were late-successional, while the OC areas were dominated by early successional species. Diversity and density of regeneration were lowest in OC areas. Findings of this study suggest harnessing biodiversity conservation by promoting natural regeneration and identifying the areas with higher potential for assisted natural regeneration that will enable in situ conservation of rare and vulnerable species by protecting them from further erosion.

Mental health of indigenous people: is Bangladesh paying enough attention?

Indigenous people face numerous challenges to their mental health across the world. We consider the situation in Bangladesh, where those living in the remote hill tracts areas of Eastern Bangladesh experience widespread difficulties. Few seek attention for their problems from professional services, in part because of stigma or a lack of awareness that help could be made available, but also because in these remote areas few resources are available. We make recommendations to improve this situation, which could be implemented with the assistance of primary healthcare services and traditional healers.

Subsistence, risk-taking, and reciprocity among the Tanchangya in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh

This paper examines livelihood strategies of Tanchangya culantro cultivators of the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, in relation to their subsistence, risk-taking, and reciprocity practices, who have been embroiled in compulsive market participation due to paternalist state policies. It puts forward two propositions. First, the objectives of protecting subsistence and of improving familial situation drive Tanchangya peasants to employ flexible strategies in relation to risk management and income generation. Second, it proposes that reciprocity practices provide minimum security to village households in times of crises and exigencies, and work as a safeguard against the exploitation of capitalist Bengali traders. It concludes that subsistence struggles lead peasant families to choose most suitable crops and farming methods and remain open to diverse income sources. Village reciprocity practices, either as dynamic and evolving relationships between two actors or involving the larger community, having different forms, supplement this struggle of peasants for survival.