Qing Research Articles

Political Economy in Early Modern China and Its Relevance to Contemporary China

ABSTRACT This article seeks to develop an understanding of the historical political economy of late imperial/early modern China, from the Song through the Qing dynasties, which recognizes its basic features as a distinctive Chinese form of commercial capitalism. Using defining characteristics of capitalism as set forth in Marx’s analysis of European, particularly English, capitalism, this article argues that the structures and functions of the late imperial Chinese economy, and the cultural inflections generated by that economy, constitute a historical form of capitalism clearly different in its details, but substantially embodying the key features of Western capitalism, such as commodity production, elaborate market mechanisms, credit and finance systems, a monetized system of exchange, and the extraction of surplus value from labor for accumulation by commercial actors in both the manufacturing and agricultural sectors. This is important not only for the correct identification of the late imperial/early modern Chinese system and for understanding the diversity of capitalist development outside the traditional Eurocentric framework, but also for its relevance to contemporary China’s project of socialist construction.

Chinese Perspectives on Chinese Indentured Labourers during the First World War

ABSTRACT This article explores Chinese perspectives on the indenturing of Chinese labourers during the First World War and Chinese official intervention in the indenture system. In contrast to the Qing government’s reluctance to send people overseas, the Republican government formed in Peking in 1912 believed in integration into the international capitalist system, and that indentured Chinese labourers working abroad would benefit the country and its people. The government sought to regulate indentures to prevent the recruitment of labourers by rogue agents and to establish new standards for the indenturing system. To some extent this arrangement reflected the characteristics of a new system under which the labourer was relatively free. The popular press was the main vehicle through which the Chinese reading public constructed their perceptions of the indenture system. The terrible conditions endured by Chinese labourers in Russia was portrayed in newspapers as a consequence of the fraudulent practices of Chinese recruiting agents. Labourers recruited by the British and French were judged to have received better treatment. The perceptions of Chinese labourers and their families varied, but especially after the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, their memories of indenture were influenced by anti-colonial and nationalist perspectives.

The esthetics of everyday life for Jiangnan literati in the late Ming and early Qing period: Drinking culture as a case study

The everyday lives of late Ming and early Qing Jiangnan literati had interesting esthetic characteristics. This article analyzes drinking culture to explore these artistic lifestyles. The consumption of alcohol was not merely a way to satisfy the taste buds or the stomach. Rather, it was a form of entertainment and cultural practice that showcased lifestyle and personality. In addition to analyzing the emotional lives of Jiangnan literati, this article will also explore the esthetic concept of “leisure” (閒xian) as leisure embodied the esthetics of Jiangnan literati life. Leisure was a daily life pursuit of many Jiangnan literati, as well as a measure of a person’s taste. The everyday lives of literati became more interesting and varied because they valued leisure.

Guqin Theory—Focusing on the Song, Yuan, Ming and Qing Dynasties

<p>本文旨在透過琴論中「韻」的文獻解讀，以考察與研究其意涵的發展與流變──以宋元明清時期為主。「韻」代表中國文藝美學的風格與意境的最高成就，舉凡詩論的「神韻」、書畫論的「氣韻」都有特定的意義。然而，樂論中的「韻」卻散見於不同的古籍文獻中，缺少給予一個形成、發展與流變的說明。事實上，審諸歷代樂論來看，「韻」字幾乎都集中在「琴論」中，故本文擬針對這個課題加以研究，除了前言與結論外，內容主要在探討琴論中的「韻」在琴論中產生與流變的歷程為何。透過本文之研究，一方面讓琴論中「韻」的觀念能獲得釐清與建構；另一方面本文將指出在唐朝之前，琴論中論及「韻」者僅零星可見，直到宋代才出現「聲韻」與「氣韻」二者作為琴論中「韻」的美學要旨，前者是古琴音律與美學上的基本要求，乃是清代以前的琴論中論「韻」的重點，乃在以聲韻清雅為美；後者則在清代以後才成為古琴音樂美學的審美觀，所謂的「氣韻」強調彈琴與人之身體呼吸相契合，且又結合人之修養工夫的實踐，落實於吟猱綽注之指法運用，以成就琴韻之美的最高境界。</p> <p> </p><p>This research investigates the aesthetic significance of “yun” in ancient guqin theory. The “yun” represents the highest achievement of the style and artistic conception of Chinese literary and artistic aesthetics. Moreover, “yun” has well-defined meanings in many aspects of Chinese cultures, such as poetic theory, painting theories, and calligraphy. However, “yun” lacks a clear definition in guqin music theory. Historical records of “yun” in guqin music theory scatter over different ancient book collections. Therefore, the author intends to investigate further “yun” in guqin music theory and research how the process of generation and implementation of it. Through the above research, the concept of “yun” in ancient guqin theories can be clarified and constructed; on the other hand, the author points out that the idea of “clear yun” （清韻）and “elegant guqin” （雅琴）was only sporadically visible in the guqin theory before the Tang Dynasty. It was not until the Song Dynasty that “sound-yun” （ 聲韻） and “qi-yun” （ 氣韻）appeared as the aesthetic essence of “yun” in guqin music theory. The former is the essential requirement of guqin rhythm and aesthetics; the focus of yun in the guqin theory before the Qing Dynasty, that is, the beauty of “sound-yun” is clarity and elegance. Rhythmic vitality became the brilliant aspect of guqin music aesthetics onlyafter the Qing Dynasty. Whether from fingering, composition, etc., presenting the beauty of the yun of guqin music emphasizes the harmony with the guqin player’s body breathing. It combines the practice of human cultivation. Once the spiritual realm of the guqin player is continuously improved, he/she will achieve the highest state of the beauty of the guqin yun.</p> <p> </p>

企劃論文] 근대 초기 딱지본 표지화에서 보이는 중국 도상 연구

In the early 20th century, Kroean publishing houses that pioneered the distribution of newly edited Chinese classical novels actively utilized Chinese images to reflect readers’ tastes, even showcasing images that were neither popular nor taboo in the Joseon Dynasty. On the covers of Ttakji-bon novel, such as “Gwkbunyang Silqi(The Story of Gwakbunyang),” a Chinese novel, the Chinese-style iconography of a husband and wife sitting together enjoying a banquet was consistently featured from the first edition in 1913 until the 1950s. This imagery, which was not seen in the Confucian society of the Joseon Dynasty, highlights the public’s interest and changes regarding the new status of men and women within the East Asian family structure during the transition to a modern society. Moreover, the book-cover of “Gwakbunyang Silgi” illustrates the distribution of the Chinese iconography of the husband and wife sitting together, which was very popular in Qing Dynasty as a form of New Year’s Poster(Nianhua). This paper examines the visual representation and distribution of the classical story of Gwabunyang in the publishing culture of the early 20th century, focusing on the cover images of the Ttakji-bon, Gwakbunyang Silgi.

명청대 마조(媽祖) 신앙의 표준화에 대한 고찰

Mazu, believed to have lived during the tenth century on Meizhou Island (湄洲島), was a real-life wu (巫) or shaman named Lin Mu (林默: 960-987). Due to various miraculous events associated with her both during her lifetime and after her death, she was revered as a deity. Initially a local deity, Mazu eventually became China’s prominent goddess of the sea. Her veneration has been bolstered by the Chinese government’s efforts to revive traditional culture, turning her into a cultural brand recognized worldwide. However, throughout Chinese history, Mazu worship has adapted to the demands of each era. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, Mazu belief was not rigidly defined according to the imperial court’s intentions. Instead, it reflected the diverse perspectives and elements intertwined within various social strata. In this context, examining the factors that shaped Mazu belief during the Ming and Qing dynasties sheds light on how it spread through mutual cooperation between the state and the private sector. Beyond bilateral relations and local networks, understanding these overlooked aspects contributes to the broader picture of China’s efforts toward globalizing and standardizing Mazu culture.

Excavation, Collection, and Research of New Materials on the Study of the Qing Dynasty’s Shuowen

Excavation, Collection, and Research of New Materials on the Study of the Qing Dynasty’s Shuowen

Research Progress on the Treatment of Qi Deficiency and Blood Stasis Type Hand-foot Syndrome by Buyang Huanwu Decoction

Hand-foot syndrome (HFS) is one of the common adverse reactions in the treatment of malignant tumors, and its incidence is gradually increasing with the widespread use of antitumor drugs. HFS seriously affects patients' daily social and life, and even leads to drug dosage reduction or early discontinuation of medication, which delays treatment. Modern medicine has not yet fully clarified the understanding of its etiology and pathogenesis, the lack of uniform standards for the evaluation of therapeutic efficacy, and the poor effect of targeted systemic therapy. Chinese medicine classifies HFS into the category of "blood paralysis", and considers that the disease is located in the hands and feet, with deficiency as the main cause, and the deficiency as the underlying cause, and the mixture of deficiency and reality. BHD is from the book "Reform and Error Correction of Medical Forests" written by Qing Dynasty physician Wang Qingren, which has the effects of tonifying qi, activating blood and clearing collaterals. The formula is rigorous and well formulated, and is now widely used in all kinds of diseases with qi deficiency and blood stasis, with remarkable results. In recent years, with the rapid development of modern pharmacology, the research on the microscopic mechanism of action of BHD has been developing and deepening, which provides new ideas for the treatment of the disease. In this paper, we review BHD in HFS in the treatment of malignant tumors from the aspects of its formula and modern pharmacological research, with a view to providing clinical basis and reference for the future treatment of HFS of qi deficiency and blood stasis type by BHD.

Moral Education and Heaven–Human Relationship in Jesuit Translations of Chinese Poetry (17th–18th Centuries)

The 17th and 18th centuries were a period of extensive cultural interaction between China and the West, and also the beginning of Chinese poetry translation in the West. Jesuit missionaries were pioneers in introducing Chinese poetry to Europe. Influenced by the Confucian poetic thought of Siwuxie 思無邪 (no depraved thoughts) and Ricci’s accommodation strategy, the Jesuits translated poems from the Shangshu 尚書, the Shijing 詩經, and the Emperor Qianlong’s Imperial Odes on Shengjing 禦制盛京賦, as well as works by Fan Zhongyan 范仲淹, Du Fu 杜甫, Shao Yong 绍雍, and even the poems in the exhortations of the Ming and Qing dynasties into European languages. These poems predominantly dealt with themes of moral education, the image of virtuous monarchs, and the Chinese concept of the Heaven–human relationship. Through intentional omissions and rewriting, the Jesuits incorporated their religious and political views into the Chinese poetry. Their translated works not only enriched European knowledge of Chinese culture but also demonstrated the complexity of Chinese–Western cultural exchange.

Social changes and peasant livelihood during the reign of Emperor Qianlong of the Qing Dynasty

In the early Qing Dynasty, Manchu rulers sought to prevent a large number of Han people from leaving customs and infringing on the interests of the Manchus, due to its influence on the customs and order of the Manchu people in the "the place of prosperity", Northeast China was sealed off and Han people in the region were prohibited from migrating to the northeast. However, the strict ban did not completely stop the Han immigration activities. A series of economic policies implemented during the period from Kangxi to Qianlong made Shandong's population increase substantially, and it was difficult for the limited land to support the rapidly growing population. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong, a series of natural disastehasave occurred in Shandong, and poverty and famine forced a large number of Han people to enter the east to make a living. Based on the experience of Shao Ying, a poor man in Jimo, Shandong province, during the Qianlong period, this paper tries to explore this grand immigration history and the economic and social background at that time.

A Set of Acupuncture Needles in the Late Qing Dynasty Collected by George Soulié de Morant

Abstract In the early 20th century, French vice-consul George Soulié de Morant encountered acupuncture during his visit to China, and then brought it back to France. After more than 100 years, his collection was transported from Paris, France to Kunming, China, and later recognized as a Chinese national third-class precious cultural heritage. Currently housed in the Museum of Western Studies on Chinese Medicine at Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, this set of instruments includes one needle holder converted from a fan-shaped holder, ten acupuncture needles, and eleven paper tags handwritten in English with names of diseases and body parts. This article attempts to present the basic information and historical appearance of this set of late Qing dynasty acupuncture instruments by reviewing the collection and related research on acupuncture instruments, consulting acupuncture professionals, measuring the detailed information of the set of instruments, and employing a method of translating and summarizing the content of the attached tags.

VII. Eine Entwicklungsgeschichte des chinesischen Familien- und Erbrechts im Lichte der Rezeption des deutschen BGB

Summary In contrast with China’s several millennia of civilization history, its history of civil law legislation had not started until the late Qing-Dynasty (1911). This discrepancy stood out prominently in the correlated areas of the family law and inheritance law due to China’s cultural features and the compatible cultural awareness of its people, which had naturalized and legitimized their practices in both areas. Actually, in no other areas had the cultural consciousness, the deep-rooted cultural psychology and the consciousness-driven behavioral patterns of the Chinese families and individuals been more profoundly shaped by the rules of rites and etiquette, the ethical rules and the patriarchal clan system, central customary-legal elements enshrined in the Chinese history. As its key achievement, the legal modernization in the late Qing period (1902–1911) brought forth the Civil Code of the Qing- Dynasty (ZGE), the first such milestone in China’s legal history, initiating the civil law legislation in China. With regard to China’s special legal-historical and legal-cultural background, the drafters of the ZGE – especially its family and inheritance law – had to revolutionarily modernize the Chinese civil law, while at the same time, transferring certain traditional cultural legacies. This could not have been possible without adopting the German Civil Code (BGB) as the primary foreign codification model, especially from the legal-technical, legal-systematic and legal-dogmatic perspective. Ever since then, the evolution of the Chinese civil law has been closely connected with the adoption of the BGB, while the history of the former runs parallel to the history of the latter. The influences of the BGB on China’s major civil law codifications, including also the Civil Code of the Republic of China (1929–1931) and the PRC Civil Code (2020), have been significant and continuous. It is legal-historically insightful to probe into these influences while examining the evolutionary history of the Chinese family and inheritance law ever codified since the ZGE, and, accordingly, retracing and closely analyzing the pre-modern state of both areas.

Impact of Shi Tao Hot Phenomenon on Art Market

Shi Tao was a famous artist from the late Ming Dynasty to the early Qing Dynasty. His reputation, however, appears to have fluctuated over time. During the Qing Dynasty, Shi Tao’s influence was considered minimal and even marginalized. However, in the period of the Republic of China, he was highly valued and gained great fame. This affluent phenomenon is referred to as the "Shi Tao Hot". Along with this phenomenon, significant changes occurred in Shi Tao's art market. This article aims to examine the development and changes in Shi Tao's art market, thereby understanding some of the impacts brought about by the "Shi Tao Hot".

The Influence of Qiu Jun on Jesuit Missionaries and Chinese Christian Texts in Ming–Qing China

The Influence of Qiu Jun on Jesuit Missionaries and Chinese Christian Texts in Ming–Qing China

Spatio-temporal evolution characteristics of cultural heritage sites and their relationship with natural and cultural environment in the northern Fujian, China

China’s northern Fujian, as one of the spatial carriers of renowned traditional Chinese cultures such as Minyue, Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucianism, tea, and porcelain, has preserved a wealth of tangible cultural relics, showcasing a profound cultural heritage and possessing strong research value and development potential. This study employs GIS spatial statistical analysis and map visualization technology to unveil the evolutionary processes of cultural heritage sites in northern Fujian, focusing on their spatial types, forms, and densities across different historical periods. Based on this foundation, the research further delves into the intrinsic relationships between the spatial distribution characteristics of cultural heritage sites in northern Fujian during various historical periods and the local natural and cultural environment. The results indicate that: (1) the spatial distribution of cultural heritage sites in northern Fujian varies across different historical periods, with the highest concentration and quantity observed during the Ming and Qing periods. In contrast, the Qin, Han, Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties period exhibits the lowest quantity and a more dispersed distribution. (2) Cultural heritage sites in northern Fujian are mainly distributed in the relatively flat terrain below 400 m above sea level, including middle to low-altitude mountain basins, river valleys, and low hills. In terms of distance from rivers, cultural heritage sites exhibit a clear distribution pattern along rivers, with a large number of them located within 0–6 km from the riverbanks. (3) The spatial distribution of cultural heritage sites in northern Fujian is influenced not only by macro-environmental factors such as topography, altitude, and rivers but also by micro-shaping from social and cultural elements like Minyue culture, tea and porcelain ancient road culture, Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucianism culture, religious beliefs and customs culture, and red revolutionary culture across different historical periods. This study contributes to the establishment of a model correlating cultural heritage sites with historical periods and provides an interdisciplinary methodological framework to understand the relationship between cultural heritage sites and the geographical environment.

The Study on the Reasons and Cultural Inheritance of Huang Daozhou’s Calligraphy in the "Xiaojing"

Huang Daozhou (1585-1646), also known as Shizhai, was a famous scholar and calligrapher of the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. In the final stages of his life, he was imprisoned for his candid advice to the emperor, during which he wrote 120 volumes of the "Xiaojing" (The Classic of Filial Piety). This paper aims to explore Huang Daozhou's motives for writing the "Xiaojing" in prison and its cultural significance. By analyzing Huang Daozhou's life, educational background, reasons for imprisonment, and calligraphy style, the paper reveals the importance of the "Xiaojing" in Huang Daozhou's mind and how he expressed his loyalty and filial piety to the nation and family through his calligraphy. The study shows that Huang Daozhou's calligraphy is not only an artistic creation but also a reflection of his moral and political stance.

Constructing a county-level environmental events dataset for China during the Ming and Qing dynasties (1368–1911)

This article builds on China’s rich recorded history to present a newly constructed dataset of environmental events at the county-level for the period 1368 to 1911. Essential to the dataset construction is the use of recently developed AI techniques, including new optical character recognition, lexical analysis based on machine learning, and word frequency analysis. The result is that environmental information was extracted from different sources, comprised of structured collections of printed historical records, and then combined and parameterized to construct a county-level environmental dataset that includes information on the incidence of cold spells, droughts, floods, and wind events. The dataset is validated and Geographic Information Systems are used to manage and present the spatially disaggregated data. The new data are expected to benefit future researchers looking to study historical environmental extreme events, or examine their impact on other aspects of Chinese economy and society.

Sociopolitical Impact of a Natural Disaster

Drawing on primary historical sources and secondary paleoclimatic data, this paper examines the significant ‘snow disaster’ (gangs skyon) that occurred in the Nagchu region of Northwestern Tibet in 1828. It places this event within the context of the ‘Little Ice Age’, a globally cold period. By analysing reports of natural disasters exchanged between the Ganden Podrang Government and local administrators, the paper argues that the snow disaster led to an ‘unprecedented’ ecological and economic crisis. This crisis resulted in the deaths of tens of thousands of livestock and triggered various social and economic catastrophes. It also highlights that the Tibetan government responded by providing relief measures, including the suspension of yearly taxes. Notably, the Qing court extended substantial aid, facilitating the acquisition and replacement of livestock. This study underscores how a single climatic event can contribute to triggering various socio-political challenges in societies that are more exposed to vulnerabilities.

Reflections on a 19th century Qing dynasty portrait with neurofibromatosis type 1.

Reflections on a 19th century Qing dynasty portrait with neurofibromatosis type 1.

Correction to: Picturing the flora of China: Early Qing dynasty plant paintings in Britain

Correction to: Picturing the flora of China: Early Qing dynasty plant paintings in Britain