Chinese Project Research Articles

ГЛОБАЛЬНА ПІДПРИЄМНИЦЬКА АКТИВНІСТЬ ІНДІЙСЬКИХ ТНК В КОНТЕКСТІ ФОРМУВАННЯ АЛЬТЕРНАТИВНОГО ЦЕНТРУ РЕГІОНАЛЬНОЇ ВЛАДИ

The article examines the problems of forming a new center of regional economic power headed by India. At the same time, the prerequisites, regularities and possible results of its formation are shown along with the selection of zones of economic interests of India. It is shown that the fundamental in this context is the further development of the entrepreneurial activity of Indian transnational corporations, which have already undergone the process of initial incorporation into global economic networks, are characterized by relative stability, have good indicators of credit and financial stability and significant amounts of capitalization. It was thanks to the active internationalization of Indian business that the ambitious project "North-South" became possible for implementation, which enables India to claim regional leadership. The further directions of the development of this project are defined and the possible scenarios of the transformation of India into a global leader are shown, provided that a number of internal contradictions in internal development are eliminated and the structure of the country's economic complex is adjusted. It was determined that the state-corporate partnership in India in recent years has become a key to successful internationalization of activities and under the conditions of strengthening the social responsibility of local business can become a catalyst for successful reform of the country's domestic economic complex. It was noted that Indian TNCs work mainly in high-tech sectors of the economy and form appropriate enclaves of innovative leadership, which makes it possible to help regions characterized by weak development, both inside the country and abroad. And the active offshoring business in the countries of Africa and Asia makes it possible to intensify business and export activity. Thus, a conclusion was made about the key role that Indian TNCs play in promoting the country's regional leadership and its inclusion in global communication, technological, banking, financial and credit, entrepreneurial networks. It has been established. That in recent years, India has become not just a regional leader, but quite successfully resists the Chinese project and actively advocates for a polar world, where the Indian project will have a number of advantages.

Экономические отношения Кыргызстана и КНР: история, проблемы, перспективы

The Kyrgyz Republic and the countries of Central Asia are key territories on the path to the implementation of the Silk Road Economic Belt within the framework of the Chinese One Belt, One Road project. After the collapse of the USSR, the entire post-Soviet space for the rapidly growing Chinese economy became even more important as a sales market, and the Central Asian republics, including Kyrgyzstan, turned into key, transit territories within the framework of the One Belt, One Road project. Based on the statistical data of the General Administration of Customs of China and Kyrgyzstan, as well as legal documents, the article examines the dynamics, features and prospects of bilateral trade and economic cooperation. The authors identified the main stages of interaction between the two countries, identified the problems and opportunities for trade and economic cooperation, which has been rapidly developing since the end of the last century. Bilateral dialogue in the trade and economic sphere has good prospects. To date, China has firmly taken the place of the main trading partner of Kyrgyzstan. However, despite the positive dynamics, a number of negative phenomena have been revealed in trade and economic relations. These phenomena were primarily associated with the consequences of the pandemic, the growth of Sinophobia, etc. At present, in all countries of Central Asia, including Kyrgyzstan, Chinese initiatives have both supporters and skeptics, as well as those who fear possible negative consequences in the implementation of Chinese projects. The authors note that there are fears in connection with the expansion and strengthening of the influence of the Celestial Empire in the region, which may have the consequences of territorial concessions to a strong neighbor in exchange for investment, fears associated with economic and migration expansion. But objectively, cooperation between the People’s Republic of China and Kyrgyzstan is gaining momentum, which can bring both benefits as well as certain challenges and risks.

Elevating ESG: Empirical Lessons on Environmental, Social and Governance Implementation of Chinese Projects in Africa

Elevating ESG: Empirical Lessons on Environmental, Social and Governance Implementation of Chinese Projects in Africa

CPEC – Geo-Politics to Geo-Economics

The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is a multi-billion-dollar collection of ongoing and planned Chinese projects in Pakistan ranging from infrastructure development to the establishment of special economic zones and the sharing of technical expertise by China. For China, it is an integral part of its ambitious Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) through which it aims to establish its economic hegemony in Eurasia and Africa. For Pakistan, it is an opportunity to bring its stumbling economy to some semblance of stability and even growth. Therefore, now the policy makers of the country must wake up and use the valuable human resource like youth for nation building. In this context, attainment of higher education should be ensured. However, there are controversies regarding the initiative as well, with critics decrying it as an attempt at the economic exploitation of Pakistan at the hands of China. In any case, CPEC is a project that has immense ramifications for the geo-politics of the entire region, particularly with regard to economic affairs. Hence, it is important to analyze its effects and the views of the general public regarding it in order to understand the situation in terms of geo-economics.

Brief Synopses of New Arabic-Language Publications

Brief Synopses of New Arabic-Language Publications

About some areas of cooperation between China and Israel

Israel was the first state in the Middle East to recognize the independence of the PRC, but full-fl edged diplomatic relations between the two countries were established only in 1992. Since the beginning of the 1980s, the interaction between the two countries has been in the nature of military-technical cooperation, and in the 1990s it acquired a new dimension. After the confl ict between the United States and Israel in the late 1990s and early 2000s, due to the alleged transfer by Israel to the PRC of technical means created on the basis of American technologies, military-technical cooperation between China and Israel stopped. Nevertheless, the cooperation continues to develop. The PRC is beginning to actively invest in high-tech Israeli companies, as well as attract Israeli investors to national innovation (technology) parks in China, which corresponds to the long-term goals of the PRC in the fi eld of scientifi c and technological development. In addition, the two countries are currently dynamically cooperating in the fi eld of infrastructure investments, which not only improves Israel’s logistics potential, but also creates facilities that in the future will become an integral part of the global Chinese project "One Belt and One Road".

The “Authentic Evocation” in Ethnographic Photography as Art: Taking Lau Pok Chi’s Art Practice as an Example

This article emphasizes the disciplinary problems of anthropology after the representation crisis, and the connected phenomenon of the intersection of the disciplines of art and anthropology, considering the art practice of the Chinese American photographer Lau Pok Chi, mainly his Cuban Chinese project, as an instance for showcasing the authenticity of photographic art as ethnographic practice and its value for the development of anthropology. After assessing the important motivation of the artist’s practice, which is rooted in his construction of self-identity, and the methods and principles of his “quasi-ethnographic” research, this paper recommends that the authenticity of such type of ethnographic photography also obtains from its exposure of reflexivity and the transcendence of the separation of “things” and “words”, which may further motivate the multiple explorations of the two-way intervention between these two disciplines.

Infrastructures and b/ordering: how Chinese projects are ordering China–Myanmar border spaces

ABSTRACT Border regions worldwide have gained prominence for how nation-states order, divide and understand the world. This is increasingly made explicit in the selective management of global commercial and human flows, leading to a paradoxical development and a major dilemma for the contemporary bordering practices in border regions: that of concurrently facilitating differentiated mobility while ensuring territorial integrity, securing both territories and flows. This paper argues that large-scale transnational infrastructures, by controlling, facilitating and channelizing cross-border mobilities, have emerged as a major instrument of b/ordering space in borderlands. This is especially relevant in Asia, where transnational, cross-border connectivity infrastructure projects have mushroomed, supported by political rhetoric, big budgets and diplomatic vigour. Grounded in long-term ethnographic research, the paper scrutinizes variegated infrastructure spaces in the seemingly remote and conflict-riddled borderlands between China’s Yunnan province and northern Myanmar’s Kachin state, subject to intensive Chinese infrastructure developments since the mid-1990s, further accelerated by the launch of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) in 2015. The paper argues that infrastructures such as roads, plantations and special economic zones have started to regulate these volatile and contested borderlands more effectively than the official boundaries that delimit complex territorialities in the border region.

Interplay of Resources and Institutions in Improving Organizational Resilience of Construction Projects: A Dynamic Perspective

The increasing number of destructive events, such as natural disasters and social public events, may result in project delays and impair project performance. Accordingly, building and enhancing the organizational resilience of construction projects is a priority for construction organizations. This study seeks to advance this literature by exploring the combination of conditions to enhance resilience from resource and institutional perspectives. Specifically, resource-based theory and institutional theory are used to identify factors that affect the organizational resilience of construction projects, and fifteen representative Chinese projects are selected. A conditional combination is explored to build organizational resilience from pre-crisis and post-crisis perspectives and make a comparative analysis. Results show that institutional factors dominate the construction of proactive organizational resilience, whereas resource factors play a major role in enhancing reactive organizational resilience. Organizational norms are the main guarantee for the crisis response of construction projects whether before or after a disaster. This study contributes to understanding the dynamic changes of organizational resilience in construction projects. The findings provide a basis for enhancing organizational resilience, focusing on crisis preparedness and recovery efforts to respond to frequent and unexpected challenges.

Inside China’s state-owned enterprises: Managed competition through a multi-level structure

China's state-owned enterprises are among the largest firms in the world, dominating key sectors of the Chinese economy and playing a major role in Chinese projects abroad through the Belt and Road Initiative. This article describes a system of “managed competition” among China's state-owned enterprises that attempts to harness the forces of competition while intervening to ensure a robust field of capable competitors. This system is implemented through a multi-level structure where parent state-owned enterprises coordinate and balance competition among a set of similarly resourced subsidiaries through the allocation of management personnel and resources. This article examines how this approach works in practice through an in-depth empirical case study of two of China's largest infrastructure construction firms: China Railway Group Limited and China Railway Construction Corporation. Understanding the internal structure and operations of China's state-owned enterprises sheds light on a crucial part of China's political economy and on China's efforts to extend its influence globally.

Silk Road Economic Belt: key risks and opportunities for Kazakhstan

The article examines the Chinese project “Silk Road Economic Belt” (SREB) from the standpoint ofkey risks and benefits for Kazakhstan. In this aspect, a characteristic is given of the New Silk Road, thepossibility of using the republic’s potential for the implementation of the “One Belt, One Road” concept,the prospects for the development of cooperation between the PRC and the Eurasian EconomicUnion (EAEU). The relevance of the research topic is determined by the fact that Europe is intensivelyseeking access to Asian markets, and Asia is interested in the European market. The purpose, main directionsand ideas of scientific research is to establish the risks and opportunities for Kazakhstan in theimplementation of the Chinese SREB project. In the course of the study, it was found that for the CentralAsian countries, cooperation between the EAEU and the SREB seems to be a new era of developmentfor the entire Eurasian region. It can become a factor in economic growth, and for China – by improvingthe economic situation. Much attention is paid to the further development of transport potential and theformation of the logistics infrastructure of Kazakhstan, the development of oil and gas processing and theestablishment of the chemical industry.Key words: Great Silk Road, “One Belt, One Road”, Economic Belt of the Silk Road, transport andlogistics infrastructure, oil and gas processing, chemical industry.

Biodiversity risks and safeguards of China’s hydropower financing in Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) countries

<h2>Summary</h2> China has emerged as the largest overseas financier of hydropower in low-income countries. Since hydropower dams pose risks to biodiversity, an examination of potential biodiversity impacts of Chinese projects is critically needed. We conducted a biodiversity risk and safeguards assessment of Chinese-funded dams being built in Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) countries. We identified 49 Chinese-funded dams in 18 BRI countries. They pose a risk to 14 free-flowing rivers, 12 critically endangered freshwater fish species, and 134 km² of critical terrestrial habitat. While the overall biodiversity risk is high, dams funded by key Chinese financiers namely, China Development Bank and China Export-import Bank, do not pose a higher risk compared with multilateral development bank (MDB)-funded dams. Chinese regulators do not have binding biodiversity safeguard requirements for overseas projects while the corresponding requirements of MDBs fail to address riverine impact. Robust safeguards and basin-wide planning will allow China to minimize the biodiversity risks of its hydropower portfolio, while still decarbonizing its overseas energy financing.

Verification of the association of the cycle threshold (Ct) values from HPV testing on Cobas4800 with the histologic grades of cervical lesions using data from two population-based cervical cancer screening trials

ObjectiveTo verify the association of high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) viral load reflected by cycle threshold (Ct) values from HPV testing on Cobas4800 assay with the histologic grades of cervical lesions via analysis on the combined data from two cervical cancer screening trials and to explore the referability of Ct values in management of the abnormalities from cervical cancer primary screening.MethodsWe analyzed the data from Chinese Multi-Center Screening Trial (CHMUST) and BUJI Cervical Cancer Screening Study Project (BUJI Study). All data to be analyzed in this paper were related to provider-collected samples. One-way ANOVA was performed to compare the Ct values among different histological groups, and Kendall’s tau-b correlation was applied to examine the association between Ct values and cervical lesion grades. The stepwise incidence of CIN2+ and CIN3+ in every 100 HPV positive individuals were calculated according to the descending of the genotype specific Ct values. The highest Ct values related to CIN3+ incidence rate 4% (or 25%) were used as the cutoffs to distinguish low-Ct value cases from the high-Ct value ones.ResultsA total of 1376 women in CHUMUST and BUJI Study who were aged 30–59 and positive of hrHPV for provider-collected samples on Cobas4800 with complete data in terms of the relevant Ct values (CtV) and the histological diagnosis were included for analysis. Our data showed significant difference among different histological grades of cervical lesions in the CtV of hrHPV, HPV16-plus (positive of HPV16 only or HPV16 plus 18 and/or pooled 12-HPV), and pooled 12-HPV (P < 0.05). No significant difference was found among different grades of lesions in term of correlated CtV of HPV18-plus (positive of HPV18 only or HPV18 plus pooled 12-HPV) (P > 0.05). The CIN2+ or CIN3+ incidence per 100 positives significantly increased corresponding to the descending of the CtV of hrHPV, HPV16-plus and pooled 12-HPV. Compared with high-CtV groups (CtV > 33.2 for hrHPV, CtV > 29.6 for pooled 12-HPV), the relevant risks (RRs) of CIN2+ for hrHPV and pooled 12-HPV positive groups with low-CtV (CtV ≤ 33.2 and ≤ 29.6, respectively) were 3.2 (95%CI 2.18–4.80) and 2.3 (95%CI 1.50–3.45). Similarly, the RRs of CIN3+ for hrHPV and pooled 12-HPV positive groups with low-CtV were 6.5 (95%CI 2.83–14.80) and 2.7 (95%CI 1.15–6.39), respectively. The RRs of CIN2+ for medium- (30.3 < CtV ≤ 37.4) and low- (≤ 30.3) CtV HPV16-plus positives were 5.1 (95%CI 0.68–38.38) and 20.6 (95%CI 2.96–143.92) related to high-CtV (> 37.4) groups, and the CIN3+ incidence in low-CtV value group was nine-fold higher of that in medium-CtV ones [RRs, 9.0 (95%CI 2.89–28.10)]. In comparing with the algorithms of “HPV16-plus/18-plus + cytology ≥ ASCUS for pooled 12-HPV”, triage algorithm “HPV16-plus/18-plus + Ct value ≤ 33.2 for pooled 12-HPV” could achieve a comparable sensitivity of 93.2%.ConclusionHPV viral loads reflected by Ct values for hrHPV, HPV16-plus and pooled 12-HPV from Cobas4800 HPV testing were directly associated with the severity of cervical lesions. A lower HPV genotype-specific Ct value prompted a significantly high CIN3+ risk of 4% or higher in women positive of hrHPV, HPV16-plus or pooled 12-HPV, indicating that HPV viral load reflected by Ct values on Cobas4800 may be a promising risk indicator in management of abnormalities from primary cervical cancer screening.

China Djibouti: Strategic partnership in East Africa

The development of Chinese-African relations obtains a long history. Within its history, developing countries moved toward mutually beneficial partnerships developing a geopolitical alternative to the North-South relations. This paper examines improving relations between China and Djibouti and the main motives, principles and benefits derived from relationships of two countries within the framework of the South-South cooperation concept. Investigating two countries cooperation authors are guided by such international databases as China Africa Research Initiative, AidData, China Africa Project as well as Russian and Chinese aid. The paper is considering key investments projects and their role in the development of the African country economy as well as China aid in the struggle with economic and social problems. In its role, Djibouti being a logistic hub in South Africa plays a significant part in Chinese geoeconomic and political projects in South Africa. The present analysis allows to make the conclusion that Djibouti not only develops the shipping ecosystem but also gains influence on regional affairs and in international organisations. By means of the deployment of the military base China creates a favourable investment climate with a view to extending the volume of investments and trade.

CHINA'S COMPETITIVENESS AS AN INVESTOR FOR RUSSIA IN GENERAL AND FOR THE ENERGY SECTOR IN PARTICULAR

The article the assessment of the China competitiveness is carried out taking into account geopolitical and economic factors. In terms of geopolitics, attention is paid to such initiatives as “Pivot to the East”, “One Belt One Road” and the initiative of countering the spread of COVID-19. In the context of economic indicators, an integral assessment of China's competitiveness as an investor is conducted on the basis of such indicators as the level of GDP, the global competitiveness index, the indicator of investment activity of China in the world and in Russia, as well as the indicator of investment activity in the energy sector of Russia, the number of Chinese investment energy projects and their current number. Based on the results of the analysis, it is concluded that, China has an exceptional competitive advantage from the point of view of geopolitics and macroeconomics. However, within the energy sector, China has been losing ground due to a decrease in investment activity.

Project-Based Organizations’ Pursuit of Production Efficiency and Legitimate Power: An Institutional Perspective

Drawing on institutional theory, this article aims to investigate how owners’ project-based organizations (PBOs) can promote production efficiency and legitimate power under the influence of legal enforceability. Analyzing a sample of Chinese construction projects, we find that PBOs can achieve this goal by designing more complex contracts when legal enforceability increases. The PBOs’ expertise reduces the effect of legal enforceability on contracts and alleviates their dependence on contracts when pursuing efficiency. These results can guide PBOs to design contracts according to their expertise and the legal environment to promote production efficiency and legitimate power.

The effective mediating role of stakeholder management in the relationship between BIM implementation and project performance

PurposeBuilding information modeling (BIM) has brought great advantages to project delivery and performance. However, BIM has also increased the complexity of projects. Research shows that for BIM implementation to have a positive impact in this innovative environment, BIM should be synchronized with stakeholder management. Therefore, this research aims to incorporate the theory of stakeholder management in BIM-enabled projects and determine the theory's intermediary role between BIM implementation and project performance.Design/methodology/approachAn extensive literature review was conducted and 13 critical success factors (CSFs) for BIM implementation, 29 CSFs for stakeholder management and 6 CSFs for BIM project performance were identified. These measurement items were tested using a questionnaire survey method and analyzed using structural equation modeling. This research was focused on Chinese megaprojects or complex projects that were under a high level of development of BIM, which could reflect the complex stakeholder relationships and BIM implementation for project performance.FindingsThe results indicate that effective use of BIM can directly improve project performance. Further, stakeholder management has an important and positive intermediary role within the path of BIM implementation and project performance, particularly through (1) stakeholder dynamics (SD) and (2) stakeholder engagement or empowerment (SE).Originality/valueThe logical relationship of mutual influence among CSFs has been revealed for BIM-enabled projects. This research contributes to the effective collaboration and practice of BIM in the construction industry.

Author's Response: Covid-19, Great-Power Competition, and the Future of China's Approach to the Protection of Its Interests Overseas

Author's Response:Covid-19, Great-Power Competition, and the Future of China's Approach to the Protection of Its Interests Overseas Andrea Ghiselli (bio) It is difficult to find anything more rewarding for a scholar than to have leading experts in the field thoughtfully engage with their work. Thus, I am extremely thankful to the four reviewers for taking the time to do this with my book, Protecting China's Interests Overseas: Securitization and Foreign Policy. I must also thank Asia Policy for providing a venue for such a discussion to take place. The four reviewers are well-known experts in Chinese foreign policy, each focusing on different issues. As such, I am happy that they all concur with the argument presented in my book and found it of interest. At the same time, they all touch upon similar issues in their comments, despite the different angles from which they discuss the book. In particular, they emphasize how I barely refer to the role of China's relations with other countries in the analysis. They also point out that I discuss the possible evolution of China's approach to the protection of its interests overseas, as well as implications for other actors in the international system, solely at the end of the book. To a large extent, these were deliberate choices that I made for two reasons. The first, as Jonathan Fulton notes in his comments, was a focus on approaching the study of China's strategy to protect its interests overseas through the lens of foreign policy analysis rather than international relations. This approach means that I referred to other countries only to the extent that the Chinese authors I consulted as sources did so. The second is that I have always found making predictions a difficult endeavor. The critical role of contingency in the origin and evolution of China's strategy to protect its interests overseas convinced me of that even more. After all, I doubt that this book would have been written without the Libyan crisis in 2011. Against this backdrop, I am thankful to the reviewers for pushing me to elaborate more on the findings and implications of the analysis presented [End Page 171] in my book, though I fear that addressing those issues has become even more difficult today. One of the key factors that made China consider protection of its overseas interests was the steady expansion of its economic and human footprint abroad over the past decades. This trend may change, however, especially regarding the large presence of Chinese nationals abroad. According to the latest data released by the Chinese government, the number of Chinese infrastructure workers overseas declined from about 800,000 in 2019 to less than 500,000 at the end of 2020, likely because of the Covid-19 pandemic.1 Of these workers, 163,000 were located in the Middle East and North Africa, about 100,000 less than in 2019. This is the biggest drop in the number of Chinese infrastructure workers abroad ever recorded both in those regions and at the global level. Notably, this figure does not include other categories of Chinese citizens overseas, such as entrepreneurs and students. Moreover, given that the number of workers in the Middle East and North Africa recovered quickly after the 2010–11 Arab Spring, a similar resurgence could happen again after the pandemic, but it should not be taken for granted. Chinese policymakers and scholars have also long known that foreign governments want Chinese projects to contribute to local employment and economic growth. As China's economic engagement with other countries continues to adapt, this pressure could lead to the reduction of China's human footprint overseas, especially in the developing world. At the same time, the Russian invasion of Ukraine, which has caught up 6,000 Chinese nationals, makes the future even more uncertain.2 Over the past decade, China managed to successfully evacuate thousands of people from countries such as Yemen, Iraq, and Ethiopia due to better preparation at the embassy level, improved cooperation with local governments, and—in Yemen—the option to use the military. Although Chinese nationals have continued to be victims of attacks amid conflict...

The Route to Health: China’s Belt and Road Initiative in COVID-19 Pandemic

This study examines the China’s Belt and Road Initiative in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has created new parameters for building the world order, putting forward life and health as the main values.Aim. The study aims to analyze the Health Silk Road project as a Belt and Road’s important part which, according to the Chinese government’s statements, seeks to improve the health systems and health of the population of the participating countries.Tasks. The author traces the genesis of the Health Silk Road project; describes the main measures taken by China within the framework of this initiative since the spring of 2020; determines its significance for the PRC’s domestic and foreign policy; analyzes the main benefits and risks for the project participants.Methods. When working with scientific literature on the development of the Belt and Road Initiative under pandemic conditions, methods of critical and comparative analysis are applied. The author also analyzes the primary sources — statistical data, government documents, analytical materials, speeches by officials, papers of integration unions and international organizations, public opinion polls, etc.Results. The demand for humanitarian (medical) cooperation at the present stage is substantiated; the PRC’s “mask diplomacy” and its importance for domestic and foreign policy, including impact on the image of the State, are characterized; the opinions of Western experts are analyzed; the assessment of the Build Back Better World Initiative undertaken by G7 countries as a “democratic alternative” to the Chinese project is given.Conclusion. Based on the results of the study, it is concluded that the COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the flexibility of China’s policy, which was able to adapt to the unstable international situation, find new opportunities and development vectors, including the Health Silk Road, which is likely to remain a significant direction of the Belt and Road Initiative in a post-COVID-19 world.

Analysis and appraisal of fascine in Shahe ancient bridge ruins, Xi\u2019an, Shaanxi, China

Flood control initiated Chinese civilization. Chinese civilization has a long history, and Chinese ancestors invented “aquatic engineering technology” for flood control and water management, including the Fascine body, as early as two thousand years ago. The Fascine body is a structure used to protect the bank and prevent breaching of an ancient Chinese flood control project. Excavation of the Shahe ancient bridge ruins in Xi’an City, Shaanxi Province, China led to discovery of a Fascine body structure. Through 14C dating, fibre, slice observations, infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analyses and SEM energy spectrum analyses of the fascine material, microbes in the structure and the surrounding soil were identified, the dominant microbial community was analyzed, and microbial diseases were controlled in a targeted manner. Research on the fascine bank ruins identified the width and length boundaries of the Shahe ancient bridge, determined the exact age of the Shahe ancient bridge, provided important materials for research on ancient bridges, river embankments and other ruins, and provided important clues for the traffic and layout around Chang’an during the Qin and Han Dynasties of Chinese history.