Chinese L2 Research Articles

Engagement and willingness to communicate in the L2 classroom: identifying the latent profiles and their relationships with achievement emotions

ABSTRACT Engagement and willingness to communicate (WTC) are crucial elements for second language (L2) learning. However, little is written about whether L2 learners demonstrate heterogeneous patterns of engagement and WTC in the classroom. This study aims to identify intraindividual differences in these two constructs and examine the roles of eight achievement emotions in predicting these profiles. To this end, 607 Chinese college L2 learners were recruited to complete three valid scales. Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) using Mplus 8.7 revealed a four-profile solution: high engagement-low engagement (C1: 26.85%), moderate engagement-moderate WTC (C2: 48.11%), moderate engagement-low WTC (C3: 14.83%), and low engagement-low WTC (C4: 10.21%). Multinomial logistic regression analyses revealed that negative achievement emotions did not predict these profiles, whereas positive ones did. Particularly, enjoyment was a positive predictor for all profiles, with a decreasing order of impact (C1 > C2 > C3 > C4). Hope did not differentiate between C1 and C2 but showed a decreasing influence on the subsequent profiles (C1 = C2 > C3 > C4). Lastly, pride was a significant predictor only for C4 (C1 = C2 = C3 > C4). This study also discusses the theoretical and pedagogical implications and suggests directions for future research.

Understanding young high-achieving Chinese L2 learners’ experiences: a case study in an Australian primary school

ABSTRACT Chinese (Mandarin) is taught as an L2 in many Australian primary schools and is considered challenging for English-speaking students to learn. This case study is an inquiry into the experiences of young high-achieving Chinese L2 learners’ (from an English-speaking background) in an Australian primary school. This study aims to search for the answers to ‘why’ and ‘what makes’ high-achieving students perform well and become high-achievers in Chinese L2 learning. Using interpretive phenomenological analysis, the findings of the multiple case study reveal that both internal and external factors play a role in supporting high-achieving students’ learning. Internal factors include self-confidence, positive attitudes towards L2 learning, and interest in L2 learning. External factors relate to continuously learning the same L2 curriculum and family support in language learning. This study highlights the importance of understanding the experiences of young high-achieving Chinese L2 learners and the factors that affect their learning for English-speaking background students.

The Influence of Literature on Chinese-English Biliteracy Development in Classroom Settings

English is an important subject matter in China. For Chinese children, it is a necessary process to gain English literacy in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom. Through the process, how their biliteracy develops remains unclear. To investigate the issue, this study mainly focused on the influence of literature applied in EFL classrooms on Chinese students L2 English development. Results show that literature is beneficial for students biliteracy development in terms of improving reading ability. Literature contain vivid context suitable for L2 language practices, thus may unconsciously improve students linguistic competency and fluency through the reading process. Identity formation is also important in bilingual reading developments. Through classroom literature practice, students could form proper ideologies of bilingualism and become confident in perceiving themselves as bilingual readers. Results also indicate that literature facilitates students biliteracy development through promoting their cultural understanding. Since literacy is the product of sociocultural backgrounds, biliteracy development could not be separate from altering cultural concepts and enriching cultural understandings. Literature reading not only acquaint students to diverse cultural backgrounds but also encourages constant negotiation of meaning, from where students cultural awareness become mature. This study will shed inspiration for literature practices in EFL classrooms and policymaking of EFL literature curriculum.

How syntactic complexity indices predict Chinese L2 writing quality: An analysis of unified dependency syntactically-annotated corpus

Previous syntactic complexity (SC) research on L2 Chinese has overlooked a range of Chinese-specific structures and fine-grained indices. This study, utilizing a syntactically annotated Chinese L2 writing corpus, simultaneously employs both large-grained and fine-grained syntactic complexity indices to investigate the relationship between syntactic complexity and writing quality produced by English-speaking Chinese second language (ECSL) learners from macro and micro perspectives. Our findings reveal the following: (a) at a large-grained level of analysis using syntactic complexity indices, the generic syntactic complexity indice (GSC indice) number of T-units per sentence and the Chinese-specific syntactic complexity indice (CSC indice) number of Clauses per topic chain unit account for 14.5% of the total variance in writing scores among ECSL learners; (b) the syntactic diversity model alone accounts for 24.7% of the variance in Chinese writing scores among ECSL learners; (c) the stepwise regression analysis model, which integrates fine-grained SC indices extracted from the syntactically annotated corpus, explains 43.7% of the variance in Chinese writing quality. This model incorporates CSC indices such as average ratio of dependency types per 30 dependency segments, the ratio of adjuncts to sentence end, the ratio of predicate complements, the ratio of numeral adjuncts, the mean length of Topic-Comment-Unit dependency distance, as well as GSC indices like the ratio of main governors, the ratio of attributers, the ratio of coordinating adjuncts, and the ratio of sentential objects. These findings highlight the valuable insights that syntactically annotated fine-grained SC indices offer regarding the writing characteristics of ECSL learners.

The different effects of a sensorimotor grounding on AoA between bilingual concepts.

Psycholinguistic studies have argued for the age of acquisition (AoA) of words as a marker of concept learning, showing that the semantic features of concepts themselves influence the age at which their labels are learned. However, empirical evidence suggests that semantic features such as imageability and linguistic phenomena such as frequency do not adequately predict AoA. The present study takes the developmental approach of embodied cognition and investigates the effects of sensorimotor experiences on the ease of acquisition of the concept acquired in bilinguals. Specifically, we investigated (1) whether the sensorimotor experience can explain AoA beyond frequency; (2) and whether these patterns are consistent across L1 Chinese and L2 English. We conducted sensorimotor rating measures in both Chinese and English on 207 items in which Chinese-English bilingual adults were requested to evaluate the extent to which they experienced concepts by employing six perceptual senses and five effectors for actions located in various regions of the body. Meanwhile, data on AoA and frequency were collected. The present study showed the sensorimotor experience was closely linked with AoAs in both languages. However, the correlation analysis revealed a trend of higher correlations between AoAs for the same concepts and L1 Chinese, relative to L2 English for the present Chinese-English bilinguals. Importantly, the hierarchical regression analysis demonstrated that after controlling for frequency, sensorimotor experience explained additional variance in L1 AoA. However, L2 sensorimotor experience did not explain the variance in L2 AoA. Sensorimotor experience explained more share of variance in L1 AoA but frequency accounted for more variance in L2 AoA. The findings suggest that concept acquisition should consider the grounding in appropriate sensorimotor experience beyond linguistic phenomena like frequency.

An Analysis of Grammatical Error Types in European, Chinese, and Korean L2 Learners’ Writings

An Analysis of Grammatical Error Types in European, Chinese, and Korean L2 Learners’ Writings

Exploring the Impact of a Supportive Work Environment on Chinese L2 Teachers' Emotions: A Partial Least Squares-SEM Approach.

Second language (L2) teachers' emotions can influence their well-being and students' performance. However, most of the existing studies have focused on the role of individual factors in affecting L2 teachers' emotions, while leaving environmental factors underexplored. To fill this gap, this study aimed to examine how the four dimensions of a supportive work environment (SWE) (perceived climate, PC; supervisory relationship, SR; peer group interaction, PGI; and perceived organization support, POS) relate to L2 teachers' emotions (enjoyment, anxiety, pride, and anger). A sample of 406 Chinese L2 teachers completed two valid scales to measure their SWE and emotions. The data were analyzed by Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) using Smart PLS 3 software. The results showed that (1) PC, PGI, and POS had a positive and significant effect on enjoyment, while SR had no significant effect; (2) PGI and POS had a negative and significant effect on anxiety, while PC and SR had no significant effect; (3) PGI had a positive and significant effect on pride, while the other three dimensions had no significant effect; and (4) POS had a negative and significant effect on anger, while the other three dimensions had no significant effect. The study concludes with some implications for L2 teachers' education.

Artificial Intelligence-Assisted Chinese L2 Writing: An Empirical Study on Educational Sustainability in Africa

This study investigates the impact of ChatGPT on Chinese L2 writing proficiency among African students, aligning with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for quality education and reduced inequalities. Employing a mixed-methods approach, the research involved 46 participants to quantitatively assess improvements in syntactic and lexical complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Qualitative insights were garnered through semi-structured interviews, revealing positive perceptions of ChatGPT in enhancing writing skills, yet highlighting challenges like technological access and economic constraints. The findings suggest that while ChatGPT effectively enhances Chinese L2 proficiency, its integration in African educational contexts requires addressing infrastructural and pedagogical barriers. This study contributes to the discourse on Artificial Intelligence in language education and its role in advancing African sustainable educational practices.

Developing internet-based Tests of Aptitude for Language Learning (TALL): An open research endeavour

Tests of Aptitude for Language Learning (TALL) is an openly accessible internet-based battery to measure the multifaceted construct of foreign language aptitude, using language domain–specific instruments and L1-sensitive instructions and stimuli. This brief report introduces the components of this theory-informed battery and methodological considerations for developing it into an open research instrument. It also presents the preliminary results from the initial validation of TALL carried out on data collected from Chinese L1 participants ( n = 165) from a university setting who took two rounds of tests (with counterbalanced test items) with a minimum 30-day interval. The results of data analyses at subtest, item, and battery levels suggest that, in general, TALL has satisfactory reliability and can be used to measure aptitude conceptualized in the theoretical frameworks on which it has been developed. This report also highlights the value of TALL as a convenient data collection tool openly accessible to any researcher for free, its potential for facilitating an open data pool for high-quality syntheses of aptitude-related research findings, and its implications for Open Research practices in testing language-related constructs.

Second Language Learning Difficulty of Chinese Grammar: A Rasch Analysis of Teachers’ Perceptions

Abstract This study examined second language (L2) learning difficulty of 13 Chinese grammatical constructions on the basis of teachers’ perceptions and associated the L2 learning difficulty of Chinese grammatical constructions with teacher-perceived learner grammatical competence and with the instructional levels. A total of 77 experienced teachers were invited to rate the learning difficulty of 13 Chinese grammatical constructions with reference to L2 learners at four instructional levels at college. Utilizing the Rasch rating scale model, this study established an L2 Chinese grammar learning difficulty hierarchy and revealed that the learning difficulty hierarchy mostly overlapped with the acquisitional order of Chinese grammar found in L2 Chinese research and with the instructional order in a widely used Chinese textbook. This study enriches our understanding of the multifaceted nature of L2 learning difficulty and the idiosyncratic learning difficulty and pattern associated with each Chinese grammatical construction in L2 development. Implications for Chinese instruction, material development, and assessment are provided.

Developing a multimodal corpus of L2 academic English from an English medium of instruction university in China

This paper describes the rationale for and design of a new multimodal corpus of L2 academic English from a Sino-British university in China: the Corpus of Chinese Academic Written and Spoken English (cawse). The unique context for this corpus provides language samples from Chinese students who use English as a second language (L2) in a preliminary-year programme, which prepares students for academic studies at university level, at a campus where English is used as the Medium of Instruction (emi). Data were collected from a variety of settings, including written (i.e., exam scripts and essays) and spoken assessments (i.e., interviews and presentations), covering the full range of grades awarded to those language samples, as well as from student group interactions during teaching and learning activities. The multimodal nature of the corpus is realised through the availability of selected audio/video recordings accompanied by the orthographically transcribed text. This open-access corpus is designed to help shed light on Chinese students' academic L2 English language use in a variety of written, spoken and multimodal discourses.

An acoustic study on age-related changes in vowel production of Chinese

This paper investigates the relationship between vowel production and age using speech data from 109 Chinese L1 speakers (61 females and 48 males) covering an age range of 20 to 80 years. Acoustical estimation of vocal tract length (VTL) as well as multiple acoustic metrics are analyzed with generalized additive mixed models (GAMM). The results indicate that: (1) After controlling for VTL, F0 and duration, vowels show a centralization trend with increasing age, with a more significant effect observed in female speakers; (2) VTL does not significantly change with age; (3) The patterns observed in vowel distinctiveness and duration may present evidence contradicting the notion of vowel lengthening as a compensatory mechanism; (4) The patterns of age-related changes in different measurements and different genders are diverse. The U-shaped change patterns are found in the male speakers and the age around 50 may serve as a turning point. Based on these findings, we have explored some possible reasons for inconsistent conclusions in previous studies. The physiological aging phenomena of vowel production and potential compensatory mechanisms on motor control abilities, as well as other possible influencing factors, are also discussed.

Examining student translators’ writing and translation products: quality, errors and self-perceived mental workload

ABSTRACT Although writing and translation are closely related text productions, their interface has rarely been studied in translator training. This study examined student translators’ writing and translation products in terms of their quality, errors and self-perceived mental workload. Data were collected from 11 intermediate-level translation students at a university in mainland China. They were asked to complete four tasks: L1 (Chinese) writing (L1W), L1 (English-Chinese) translation (L1T), L2 (English) writing (L2W), and L2 (Chinese-English) translation (L2T). The results of quantitative analyses revealed no significant linear correlation between self-perceived mental workload and quality/errors, but a significant effect of task type on mental workload. Errors most frequently occurred in translation and L2 text production. The L2W error rate predicted L2T scores and L2T error rates. A discrepancy was noted between the students’ self-evaluation and their actual performance. The findings of this study may help researchers and teachers gain a fine-grained understanding of students’ performance in writing and translation and shed light on the development of pedagogical measures in translator training.

The Role of the Motor System in L1 and L2 Action Verb Processing for Chinese Learners of English: Evidence from Mu Rhythm Desynchronization.

The nature of semantic representation has long been a key question in linguistic research. The Embodied Cognition theory challenges the traditional view of language representation, stating that semantic information stems from the sensory-motor cortex, which is activated automatically during semantic processing. However, most of the evidence comes from monolingual studies; it remains unclear whether second-language (L2) comprehension involves different semantic representations or mirrors the pattern seen in first-language (L1) processing. Therefore, the present study investigated the role of the sensory-motor system in language processing via making Electroencephalography (EEG) recordings during the processing of L1 and L2 action verbs. The results showed that L1 (Chinese) action verbs generated higher mu-event-related desynchronization (ERD) than L1 abstract verbs in the early processing stage (250 ms after verb presentation), and the same phenomenon was also observed for L2 (English). The results also indicated that language modulated the processing of action verbs, with L1 action verbs eliciting stronger ERD than L2 action verbs. These results demonstrate that the sensory-motor cortex plays a crucial role in comprehending both L1 and L2 action verbs.

Anticipatory processing of cataphora is constrained by binding principles in L2 English

Abstract Language processing studies show that native speakers anticipate linguistic elements before their occurrence. However, it is debated to what extent second language (L2) learners do the same. To address this question, this study examines the processing of cataphora by Chinese-speaking L2 English learners. Additionally, we query whether L2 learners’ expectations of upcoming antecedents are modulated by first language (L1) influence and constrained by Principle B of the Binding Theory (Chomsky, 1981). Two self-paced reading studies show that L1 English speakers’ anticipation of upcoming referents is active and strictly constrained by Principle B. Crucially, L2 English learners also actively predict upcoming referents and are sensitive to Principle B. However, L2 processing patterns suggest that Principle B competes with semantics at later processing stages. Together with data from L1 Chinese and English control participants, these results support the view that anticipatory processing in English is not fundamentally different between monolinguals and bilinguals.

Articulatory characteristics and vowel space analysis of Mandarin Chinese non-low vowels in Korean-speaking learners

Vowels are a fundamental component of Mandarin Chinese syllables. Accurate pronunciation of Mandarin Chinese relies on the distinct articulation of different vowels, especially the visually similar “ü” and “u”. Korean-speaking learners of Chinese Mandarin as a second language commonly exhibit non-standard pronunciation or errors in articulating “ü”, leading to confusion, particularly in non-low vowels centered around this sound. Using Praat to analyze the Formant values of non-low vowel sounds from six participants, a comparison between Korean L2 Chinese speakers and native Chinese speakers revealed vowel spaces differentiated through F2 values for /u/ and /o/, while /ɣ/ and /o/ are distinguished by F1 values. The sound similar to Korean “ㅟ” differs from /y/ in that the former is a gliding sound transitioning from low to high. The distinction between /y/ and /u/, /o/, /ɣ/ was found to be unclear, with /y/ often merging into sounds like “iu” and “io”. This aligns with historical vowel changes in Chinese “ü”, noted in previous linguistic studies, showing variations like “iu” and “io” over different periods. Korean L2 Chinese speakers tend to substitute /ɯ/ for /u/ and “ㅟ” (/ɯ/+/i/) for /y/, avoiding rounded lip movements in pronunciation, thus reducing effort and the need for additional phonemes. Furthermore, the F3 value for Korean L2 Chinese /y/ is notably lower, suggesting that the correct articulation should closely resemble the tongue position of /i/, combined with rounded lips.

Listener perception of appropriateness of L1 and L2 refusals in English

English has become an international language (EIL) as speakers around the world use it as a universal means of communication. Accordingly, scholars have investigated different aspects of EIL affecting communicative success. Speech scholars have been interested in speech constructs like accentedness, comprehensibility, and acceptability (e.g., Kang et al., 2023). On the other hand, pragmatic researchers have examined lexico-grammatical features of EIL that contribute to first language (L1) English listeners’ perceptions of appropriateness in speech acts (e.g., Taguchi, 2006). However, little is known about: a) how appropriateness is perceived by users of EIL of diverse L1s and b) how those appropriateness perceptions are related to lexico-grammatical and phonological features. Therefore, the present study had 184 listeners (L1 = English, Spanish, Chinese, and Indian languages) evaluate 40 speech acts performed by 20 speakers (L1 English and Chinese, 50% each) in terms of appropriateness on a 9-point numerical scale. Results from linear mixed-effects regressions suggested that: a) listener L1 did not contribute to listener ratings and b) speakers’ rhythm and lexico-grammatical features (i.e., use of different pragmatic strategies) significantly contributed to listener appropriateness ratings. The findings provide empirical evidence to support the phonology-pragmatics link in appropriateness perceptions and offer implications regarding the operationalization of English interactional appropriateness.

“Let’s Move on to the Recommendations.” The Use of Phrasal Verbs in Business Presentations of University Students in Hong Kong

Phrasal verbs (PVs), as a notoriously difficult L2 feature, have attracted the attention of applied linguists for a few decades. Empowered by corpus linguistics, the current study explored the quantity and quality of PVs in business presentations of university students in Hong Kong, to investigate nuances of the PV production of students in contexts. The learner corpus consists of twenty business case study presentations by 36 mixed-L1 students. Quantitative results showed that students used a sizeable number of PVs accurately. The most common lexical verbs showed a different pattern compared with native speakers of English, while the most common adverbial particles were mostly identical to those used by native speakers. International students seemed to use more PVs than Chinese L1 students and the avoidance phenomenon was observed on a few PVs. The unnatural PV use mostly stemmed from misuse of the adverbial particles due to negative L1 transfer and two instances of creative PV use were observed on English L1 speakers. We advise language teachers to incorporate more comprehensive instruction of PVs in business English courses (including common collocations, syntactic particularities, and polysemy) as well as more authentic L2 exposure.

A Study of Indonesian Students' Happiness and Its Impact on Chinese L2 Acquisition

A Study of Indonesian Students' Happiness and Its Impact on Chinese L2 Acquisition

On the acquisition of tense and agreement in L2 English by adult speakers of L1 Chinese

Abstract This study investigates whether forms associated with verbal inflection can be acquired in relation to two UG-based L2 acquisition hypotheses: the Full Transfer Full Access (FTFA) Hypothesis (Schwartz, Bonnie & Rex Sprouse. 1994. Word order and nominative case in nonnative language acquisition: A longitudinal study of (L1 Turkish) German interlanguage. In Teun Hoekstra & Bonnie D. Schwartz (eds.), Language acquisition Studies in generative grammar, 317–368. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, Schwartz, Bonnie & Rex Sprouse. 1996. L2 cognitive states and the ‘full transfer/full access’ model. Second Language Research 12. 40–72) and the Interpretability Hypothesis (Tsimpli, Ianthi-maria & Maria Dimitrakopoulou. 2007. The Interpretability hypothesis: Evidence from wh-interrogatives in second language acquisition. Second Language Research 23. 215–242). The former captures the insight that convergence on grammars like those of native speakers is possible, whereas the latter argues that a native/non-native divergence results from the inaccessibility of some uninterpretable syntactic features. Ninety adult L1 speakers of Chinese of different English proficiency levels were asked to interpret and produce tense and agreement in various contexts in three tasks. Results suggest that the underlying grammatical representations in the end-state grammar may not be the same as native speakers’. We speculate that the inaccessibility of the uninterpretable [uInfl:] feature of v and the uninterpretable [uInfl:*] feature of be are the potential source of difficulty in acquiring verbal inflection in L2 English.