Chinese-English Bilinguals Research Articles

Modality-general and modality-specific bilingual control mechanisms in spoken and written productions

Abstract Do bilinguals have similar bilingual control mechanisms in speaking and writing? The present study investigated the patterns of switch costs (reflecting reactive language control) and mixing costs (reflecting proactive language control) between Chinese (L1) and English (L2) in spoken and written productions and whether these patterns could be modulated by response-stimulus intervals (RSIs). In two experiments, unbalanced Chinese–English bilinguals completed a cued language switching task in spoken naming (Experiment 1) and written naming (Experiment 2), respectively. The results revealed asymmetrical switch costs (i.e., the larger cost in L1 than in L2) in spoken and written productions in the short RSI condition. However, there were asymmetrical mixing costs in spoken production and symmetrical mixing costs in written production both in the short and long RSIs. These findings suggest that for spoken and written productions, reactive language control operates in similar mechanisms, while proactive language control operates in specific mechanisms.

The Effect of Syntactic Similarity on Intra-Sentential Switching Costs: Evidence from Chinese-English Bilinguals.

In order to better understand the role of syntactic similarity in a code-switched sentence, the current study explored the effect of similar and different syntactic structures on Chinese-English bilinguals' intra-sentential switching costs. L2 proficiency and switching directions as factors that potentially intervene in bilingual performance were together explored to see if there was any interaction. We manipulated the degree of syntactic similarity by utilizing clauses in active voice (greater similarity) and passive voice (lesser similarity). The study conducted a self-paced reading paradigm as a more natural language reading processing. Results showed overall longer reading times for active sentences than passive counterparts, which supported a syntactic similarity impediment rather than facilitation. The impediment seemed to be predominant irrespective of L2 proficiency. Furthermore, syntactic similarity modulated the asymmetry of switching costs between forward (L1-L2) and backward (L2-L1) direction: word RTs for the 1st and the 2nd switched word yielded greater costs in L2-L1 condition, while greater costs in L1-L2 condition was observed in 3rd switched word RTs and average RTs. The present study observed syntactic similarity impediment rather than facilitation for Chinese-English bilinguals. Notably, syntactic similarity plays a predominant role compared to L2 proficiency, and modulates the asymmetry between switching directions.

Exploring the role of executive functions in Chinese-English bilinguals’ emotional word comprehension during language switching

ABSTRACT Switching between languages requires the participation of executive functions (EFs) which comprise both the ‘hot’ affective aspects (hot EFs) and the ‘cool’ cognitive aspects (cool EFs). However, the role of these EFs in language switching is not clear. This study employed a word valence categorization task to explore the effects of hot (i.e. emotional valence and emotional congruency) and cool (i.e. inhibitory control ability, IC ability) EFs on high- and low-IC Chinese-English bilinguals’ language switching costs. The results showed smaller language switching costs for positive than negative emotional words, for emotional incongruent than congruent trials, for positive than negative emotional words in emotional congruent trials and for negative emotional words in emotional incongruent than congruent trials. Moreover, hot and cool EFs worked interactively, with larger language switching costs for negative emotional words and the same pattern in emotional congruent trials for high-IC participants over low-IC ones. These results indicate that various aspects of hot EFs affect language switching costs individually and interactively, while also modulate the effects of cool EF on language switching costs during Chinese-English emotional word comprehension. These findings have implications for extending the Bilingual Interactive Activation plus (BIA+) model by incorporating both hot and cool EFs.

Cross-language activation and semantic judgements of translation ambiguous words among Chinese–English bilinguals

Aims and Objectives: Translation ambiguous words are lexical items with one-to-many equivalents in another language. Some of these equivalents are more dominant (i.e., more frequently used) than others. The aim of the present study is to explore non-target language activation of translation ambiguous words among Chinese–English bilinguals. Methodology: The implicit priming paradigm was used in three experiments to explore the activation of primary and secondary first language (L1) translations when bilinguals process second language (L2) translation ambiguous words (Experiment 1); the effect of L1 translation repetition on the processing of semantically related words in an L2 (Experiment 2); and whether such patterns are observed in the reverse direction, that is, whether L2 primary translations are activated when processing L1 translation ambiguous words (Experiment 3). Data and Analysis: We use repeated measures analyses of variance (ANOVAs) to analyse the data. Findings/conclusions: Experiment 1 showed that when processing pairs of semantically unrelated (SU) L2 words, primary L1 translation equivalents are activated, but not secondary L1 translation equivalents. Experiment 2 found that when the target L2 words were semantically related, performance was facilitated when their translation equivalents were the same L1 word (i.e., implicitly repeated). Similarly, Experiment 3 showed that when processing L1 words, the L2 translation equivalents are automatically activated. Moreover, under semantically related conditions, implicit repetition of the non-target L2 translation facilitated L1 judgements, while under SU conditions, L2 implicit repetition hampered L1 judgements. Originality: Most research on cross-language activation has examined L1 activation during L2 processing. However, few have investigated the reverse and findings from these few studies are inconsistent. Moreover, research on cross-language activation has mainly investigated the activation of primary translation equivalents, with very little focus on secondary translations. The present study uses the implicit priming paradigm to address these gaps in the literature. Significance: The findings support interactive theories of bilingual processing.

Sand, Sandpaper, and Sandwiches: Evidence From a Masked Compound Priming Task in L1 and L2 Speakers of English.

This study follows the footsteps of Jonathan Grainger and colleagues by investigating compound processing in English monolinguals and Chinese-English bilinguals using the masked primed lexical decision paradigm. First language (L1) and second language (L2) speakers responded to a semantically transparent compound (e.g., snowball-SNOW), a semantically opaque compound (honeymoon-HONEY), and an orthographic control condition (e.g., sandwich-SAND). Results revealed significantly larger L1 priming effects in transparent and opaque compared to the control condition (Experiment 1A), whereas no significant differences across conditions were observed in L2 speakers (Experiment 1B). We argue that L1 populations are sensitive to morphological structure during the early stages of compound processing, whereas L2 speakers, in particular those with lower levels of language proficiency, employ a form-based type of analysis. Findings are interpreted within the framework of recent monolingual and bilingual models of complex word recognition.

The role of cross-language orthography and phonology in translation recognition: an ERP study with Chinese–English bilinguals

Abstract This study investigated the electrophysiological correlates of cross-language orthographic and phonological processing in unbalanced Chinese (L1)–English (L2) bilinguals using a translation recognition task. The critical L1-L2 word pairs were incorrect translation equivalents but orthographically or phonologically related through translation (orthographic or phonological translation neighbor). Compared with the unrelated control, the recognition of L2 words showed comparable reaction time and accuracies when coupled with L1 orthographic or phonological translation neighbors. However, both orthographic and phonological translation neighbors elicited more negative event-related potential (ERP) waveforms in the bulk of the N400 component (300-600 ms) than the unrelated control. These findings were interpreted in the framework of the Bilingual Interactive Activation Plus model (BIA+ model), according to which cross-language orthographic and phonological representations were non-selectively accessed during the recognition of the L2 words, and top-down inhibitory control mechanism impacted the cross-language lexical competition and confliction between the two languages.

The effect of categorization levels on semantic access: eye-movement evidence from unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals

The effect of categorization levels on semantic access: eye-movement evidence from unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals

Cognitive and neural mechanisms of voluntary versus forced language switching in Chinese-English bilinguals: an fMRI study.

The ecological validity of bilingual code-switching has garnered increasing attention in recent years. Contrary to traditional studies that have focused on forced language switching, emerging theories posit that voluntary switching may not incur such a cost. To test these claims and understand differences between forced and voluntary switching, the present study conducted a systematic comparison through both behavioral and neural perspectives. Utilizing fMRI alongside picture-naming tasks, our findings diverge from prior work. Voluntary language switching not only demonstrated switching costs at the behavioral level but also significantly activated brain regions associated with inhibitory control. Direct comparisons of voluntary and forced language switching revealed no significant behavioral differences in switching costs, and both shared several common brain regions that were activated. On the other hand, a nuanced difference between the two types of language switching was revealed by whole-brain analysis: voluntary switching engaged fewer language control regions than forced switching. These findings offer a comprehensive view of the neural and behavioral dynamics involved in bilingual language switching, challenging prior claims that voluntary switching imposes no behavioral or neural costs, and thus providing behavioral and neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of inhibitory control in voluntary language switching.

Chinese-English bilinguals prefer being truthful in the native language

Bilinguals make decisions differently across languages likely due to reduced affect in the foreign language, but very little is known about language use in relation to deception. Here, we tested whether late Chinese-English bilinguals prefer to lie in the foreign language when betting against a virtual opponent. In each trial, participants freely announced bets in Chinese or English depending on whether they had drawn a coin or not. Results showed that bilinguals preferred using their native language, Chinese, over their foreign language, English, when being truthful—namely, announcing a coin when they had one. Even though participants did not choose English more to lie than to tell the truth, our results can be interpreted as a tendency to lie more in English when their behavior in the truth condition is considered the baseline. Participants also switched between languages more often after telling the truth than lying, and after telling the truth they switched more to Chinese. These results provide the first empirical evidence for strategic language use in bilinguals.

Bidirectional interaction between language control and domain-general executive control in unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals

Recent research has shown that bilinguals outperform monolinguals on tasks requiring non-linguistic executive control skills, thereby generating an interest in the relationship between bilingual language processing and non-linguistic control abilities. Based on this, the present study further examined the bidirectional interaction between language control and non-linguistic control in unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals. These bilinguals completed a Flanker task in three types of language control contexts (i.e., L1, L2, and Mixed language contexts) in the interleaved word-comprehension-to-Flanker sequence and performed a picture-word matching task in three types of non-linguistic executive control contexts (i.e., color, shape and color-shape mixed contexts) in the interleaved color-shape-switching-to-word-comprehension sequence. The results showed that the Flanker effect in mixed language context was smaller than in single (L1 and L2) context, suggesting language control leads to a better non-linguistic control ability. Additionally, the language switching cost was found smaller in the mixed task context (color/shape switching), indicating that non-linguistic control can enhance the language control ability. Therefore, we conclude that there is a bidirectional interaction between language control and non-linguistic control even in unbalanced bilinguals.

Different language control mechanisms in comprehension and production: Evidence from paragraph reading

Chinese-English bilinguals read paragraphs with language switches using a rapid serial visual presentation paradigm silently while ERPs were measured (Experiment 1) or read them aloud (Experiment 2). Each paragraph was written in either Chinese or English with several function or content words switched to the other language. In Experiment 1, language switches elicited an early, long-lasting positivity when switching from the dominant language to the nondominant language, but when switching to the dominant language, the positivity started later, and was never larger than when switching to the nondominant language. In addition, switch effects on function words were not significantly larger than those on content words in any analyses. In Experiment 2, participants produced more cross-language intrusion errors when switching to the dominant than to the nondominant language, and more errors on function than content words. These results implicate different control mechanisms in bilingual language selection across comprehension and production.

Lexical tone as a cue in statistical word learning from bilingual input

Abstract Learners can track word-referent co-occurrences across individually-ambiguous naming events to form correct word-referent mappings, termed statistical word learning (SWL). Prior research largely focuses on learning from a single language input, where a referent co-occurs with a single word (1:1 mapping). Here, we tested adults’ SWL from a simulated bilingual environment, where one referent co-occurred with two words (2:1 mapping) and the two words were either differentiated by a linguistic cue (Mandarin lexical tones, Cued condition) or not (Uncued condition). Results showed that in the Cued condition, Chinese–English bilinguals (N = 38) outperformed Spanish–English bilinguals (N = 56) and English monolinguals (N = 55), while Spanish–English bilinguals and English monolinguals performed similarly. The three groups did not differ in the Uncued condition. Self-reported learning confidence and strategies showed limited conscious awareness of learning. Results demonstrate that familiarity with a linguistic cue boosts overall statistical word learning from bilingual input.

Early Lexical Development by English–Chinese Bilinguals

This study investigated the lexical development of English–Chinese bilingual children in a Chinese immersion program in the US. Cross-linguistic Lexical Tasks in American English and Mandarin Chinese were given to 20 English–Chinese bilingual six-year-olds. They did better in English than in Chinese, even with Chinese-speaking parents. Their proficiency in Chinese is comparable to that of two- or three-year-old native speakers after one year of Chinese exposure. Lexical development correlates with both the learner’s Age of Acquisition and the estimated age of acquisition of the target words. The results of this study will enhance our understanding of bilingual lexical development and give us insight into providing support to foster bilingual lexical development.

Language Nativeness Modulates Physiological Responses to Moral vs. Immoral Concepts in Chinese-English Bilinguals: Evidence from Event-Related Potential and Psychophysiological Measures.

Morality has been an integral part of social cognition and our daily life, and different languages may exert distinct impacts on human moral judgment. However, it remains unclear how moral concept is encoded in the bilingual brain. This study, therefore, aimed to explore the emotional and cognitive involvement of bilingual morality judgement by using combined event-related potential (ERP) and psychophysiological (including skin, heart, and pulse) measures. In the experiment, thirty-one Chinese-English bilingual participants were asked to make moral judgments in Chinese and English, respectively. Our results revealed increased early frontal N400 and decreased LPC in L1 moral concept encoding as compared to L2, suggesting that L1 was more reliant on automatic processes and emotions yet less on elaboration. In contrast, L2 moral and immoral concepts elicited enhanced LPC, decreased N400, and greater automatic psychophysiological electrocardiograph responses, which might reflect more elaborate processing despite blunted emotional responses and increased anxiety. Additionally, both behavioral and P200 data revealed a reliable immorality bias across languages. Our results were discussed in light of the dual-process framework of moral judgments and the (dis)embodiment of bilingual processing, which may advance our understanding of the interplay between language and morality as well as between emotion and cognition.

The effect of inhibitory control and language proficiency on intra-sentential switching costs in reading comprehension

Based on the inhibition account and activation account, inhibitory control and language proficiency play big roles on language control mechanisms underlying language switching respectively. But it is still debatable whether inhibitory control and language proficiency play roles in sentential context during bilingual language comprehension, and how and when they work if they both do. The present study examined the specific roles of language proficiency and inhibitory control on modulating intra-sentential switching costs in Chinese-English bilinguals using self-paced reading task. Results indicated that language proficiency and switching direction modulated intra-sentential switching costs significantly. Switching costs were larger when switching into L1 than into L2 for the first two code-switched words due to inhibitory effect, but more costly switching into L2 than into L1 since the third code-switched words owing to the effect of relative language proficiency. During bilingual language processing, inhibition and activation of languages shaped a dynamic interplay of complementary language control processes. Specifically, inhibitory control and language proficiency work as a dynamic continuum in language switching at sentence level. Switching into L1 requires the release of inhibition to L1, but switching into L2 asks the activation and access of L2. The interaction effects of language proficiency and inhibitory control influenced the exertion and components of inhibition. This study reconciled the independent roles of language proficiency and inhibitory control on language switching and constructed a new continuum based on language proficiency.

The Effect of Linguistic Code-switching on CognitiveInhibition in Bilingualism: Evidence from Stroop Tests

Linguistic code-switching is a common phenomenon among bilinguals that requires extensive executive control to manage two languages. However, limited research has specifically examined whether frequent code-switching enhances cognitive inhibition as measured by the Stroop test. Understanding this relationship has important implications for harnessing bilingual advantages in inhibition and executive functioning. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate whether bilingual adolescents who engage in code-switching demonstrate improved cognitive inhibition compared to monolingual peers. Participants were 81 Chinese-English bilinguals aged 14-18, who were assigned to English reading, Chinese reading, or mixed language reading groups. Participants then completed Stroop tests. Results revealed the mixed language group had significantly faster response times on incongruent Stroop trials compared to both monolingual groups, indicating enhanced cognitive inhibition from code-switching. No significant difference emerged between the English and Chinese groups, implying monolingual reading in either language does not differentially impact inhibition.

Emotion effects in second language processing: Evidence from eye movements in natural sentence reading

Abstract There exists insufficient eye-tracking evidence on the differences in emotional word processing between the first language (L1) and second language (L2) readers. This study conducted an eye-tracking experiment to investigate the emotional effects in L2 sentence reading, and to explore the modulation of L2 proficiency and individual emotional states. Adapted from Knickerbocker et al. (2015), the current study recorded eye movements at both early and late processing stages when late Chinese–English bilinguals read emotion-label and neutral target words in natural L2 sentences. Results indicated that L2 readers did not show the facilitation effects of lexical affective connotations during sentence reading, and they even demonstrated processing disadvantages for L2 emotional words. Additionally, the interaction effect between L2 proficiency and emotion was consistently significant for the measure of total reading time in positive words. Measurements of participants’ depressive and anxious states were not robustly correlated with eye movement measures. Our findings supplemented new evidence to existing sparse eye-tracking experiments on L2 emotion processing, and lent support to several theoretical frameworks in the bilingual research field, including the Emotional Contexts of Learning Theory, Lexical Quality Hypothesis and Revised Hierarchical Model.

English derived word recognition by Chinese‐English bilinguals: Testing the nature and time course of the component processes

ABSTRACT Research utilizing morphological priming has found that L2 speakers show facilitation from derived L2 primes, which could suggest morphological processing during derived L2 word recognition. However, the process of L2 derived word recognition is still poorly understood, with some arguing that the observed priming effects may not be morphological in nature. The present study is a partial replication of Rastle et al. and its extension to L2 English processing. Its purpose is to contribute to our understanding of the nature and time course of L2 derived word recognition. Following Rastle et al., I employed visual priming methodology to explore the activation of morphological, pseudomorphological, orthographic, and semantic processes during a later, central-lexical stage of L2 English derived word recognition by Mandarin Chinese-English bilinguals. The results replicated Rastle et al.’s findings with L1 English speakers. The L2 speakers exhibited morphological effects distinguishable from effects of form overlap, suggesting that surface form overlap cannot explain L2 facilitation from derived primes. These same L2 speakers further showed pseudomorphological facilitation distinguishable from surface form effects, indicative of the operation of a purely morpho-orthographic process at the later stage of L2 English word recognition and further suggesting L2 sensitivity to morphemic structure that cannot be explained by semantic effects. Results further showed a similar graded pattern of activation of morphological, pseudomorphological, and form mechanisms in L2 and L1 speakers of English that appears to be temporally shifted between the two speaker populations. Implications for L2 word recognition theory are discussed.

The Effects of Cognitive Control on the Subcomponents of Language Control in Spoken and Written Productions.

The present study aimed to investigate whether and how the subcomponents of language control during spoken and written productions were modulated by cognitive control. In the current study, unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals were recruited from a convenience sample at a university to complete the cued language naming task in spoken production and written production, which measured the local language control (as indexed by language switch costs) and the global language control (as indexed by language mixing costs and reversed language dominance effect). In addition, all the participants performed the Simon task, which measured their general inhibitory control ability by calculating the Simon effect, and performed the AX-CPT task to measure their reactive/proactive control preference by calculating their BSI score. All the data were collected using E-prime 2.0 and analyzed in R. Linear mixed-effect model analyses were conducted to reveal the similarities and differences between spoken production and written production for the first-step analysis. Then, the Simon effect and BSI scores were inserted into the mixed-effect models of the switch costs and mixing costs in spoken production and written production, respectively, to explore whether cognitive control can predict the subcomponents of bilingual control. The results showed similar symmetrical switch costs in spoken and written modalities. In contrast, there was a reversed language dominance effect (in the mixed language context) and asymmetrical mixing costs in spoken production but neither in written production. Furthermore, we found that the Simon effect significantly negatively predicted the L2 mixing costs in spoken production, whereas the BSI score significantly negatively predicted both the L1 and L2 mixing costs in written production. The findings indicated that, for unbalanced bilinguals, local language control is shared between two modalities, while global language control is modality-independent between spoken production and written production. More importantly, the findings also suggested that global language control in spoken production relies more on the individuals' general inhibitory control, while in written production, it relies more on their cognitive control strategy. Global language control in spoken and written productions separately engages specific aspects of cognitive control, which may account for different forms of processing in global language control between speaking and writing.

The Impact of Interpreting Training Experience on the Attentional Networks and Their Dynamics.

Interpreting, a complicated and demanding bilingual task, depends heavily on attentional control. However, few studies have focused on the interpreters' advantages in attention, and the findings so far have been inconsistent. Meanwhile, the connection between attentional networks and other cognitive abilities, such as working memory (WM), has rarely been explored in interpreters. The present study investigated whether interpreting experience (IE) contributed to the attentional networks of bilinguals and explored the link between interpreters' attention and WM. Three groups of Chinese-English bilinguals, differing only in their duration of interpreting training (the More-IE group, the Less-IE group, and the No-IE group), completed the Attention Network Test (ANT). Results showed that only the alerting network was more efficient in the More-IE group than in the Less-IE and No-IE groups; moreover, the dynamics between the alerting and executive networks were significant only in the More-IE group. Furthermore, we found a negative correlation between the executive effect and the working memory capacity (WMC) in the More-IE group. Our study validated and provided empirical support for the Attentional Control Model, stimulating further research into neurocognitive mechanisms of advanced second language learning.