Chinese Accessions Research Articles

Genetic Diversity and Population Structure in Lentil ( Lens culinaris Medik.) Germplasm Detected by SSR Markers

A total of 440 lentil ( Lens culinaris) accessions, randomly chosen from the National Gene Bank, were employed in the experiment. Fourteen polymorphic SSR markers out of 145 candidate simple sequence repeat (SSR) primer pairs were screened, and 87 allelic variations were detected. Using 14 SSR primer pairs, high level of diversity was detected with average allele number of 6.2143 and Shannon-Weaver index ( I) of 1.1869. There was a significant differentiation in the genetic diversity among the 16 diverse geographic groups of the lentil accessions. The genetic diversity within alien accessions was obviously higher than that within Chinese accessions. The 440 accessions were classified into 8 clusters using Structure 2.2 software. Multiplex genetic structure was observed according to the analyses of principal components analysis (PCA), Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA) cluster, and population structure. The genetic distance within alien population was broader than that within Chinese population. In the Chinese population, accessions from Shanxi, Ningxia, and Gansu showed the highest genetic diversity, and it should be emphasized in genetic resource collection and conservation as well as deeper studies. Furthermore, international exchange of lentil genetic resources should be also enhanced.

The USTR Special 301 Reports: an analysis of the US hegemonic pressure upon the organizational change in China's IPR regime

This study examines the US hegemonic pressure upon the organizational change in China's intellectual property rights (IPR) regime. Through the theoretical lens of the hegemony theory, the paper has analyzed the Special 301 Reports by the United States Trade Representative (USTR) from 2000 to 2007 via theme analysis and achieved four research results. First, it is the shared notion of the United States to integrate China into the Agreement of Trade‐Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) by upgrading and restructuring China's IPR regime so as to better protect the US IPR and obtain greater Chinese market access. Second, China has to make repeated compromises in reforming its IPR regime due to the increasing US pressure and domestic needs. Third, by controlling the international IPR institutions, the United States has successfully generated broad consent among even disadvantaged countries like China to continue updating their IPR regime in US terms. Finally, despite initial reluctance, China has gradually established, restructured, and updated its IPR regime and shown promising signs to take IPR seriously, which needs to be taken into consideration in the future US‐China IPR negotiations.

Chinese melon (Cucumis melo L.) diversity analyses provide strategies for germplasm curation, genetic improvement, and evidentiary support of domestication patterns

The genetic diversity of melon market types (Cucumis melo L., 2n = 2x = 24) in China, an important secondary center of diversity, has not been examined. Therefore, reference accessions from India and Africa, Crete/Greece, Japan, Europe, U.S.A., Spain, and 68 Chinese cultigens (fresh-market non-netted thin-skinned; non-netted thick-skinned; netted thick-skinned; and non-netted thin-skinned, and vegetable) were evaluated by using 17 10-mer RAPD primers (32 mapped loci), days to flower, sex expression, lateral-branch number, and fruit number and weight per plant. While Chinese thin-skinned melons differed from vegetable melon types only in sex expression, the U.S. Western Shipping market type reference accession “Top Mark” and Chinese thick-skinned melons were similar for all of the morphological traits examined. The average similarity (Jaccard Coefficient) between any two pairs of accessions examined as estimated by RAPD variation was 0.47 ± 0.14. Within-group genetic similarities ranged between 0.94 (thin-skinned type) and 0.08 (non-netted thick-skinned type). The average/standard deviation, maximum, and minimum similarity between any two Chinese reference accessions was 0.41 ± 0.13, 0.75, and 0.12, respectively. Cluster analysis partitioned accessions into two main branches consisting of Group Cantalupensis and Inodorus reference accessions (clade 1) and Chinese accessions (clade 2). A second cluster analysis partitioned China, India, and Africa accessions into one major group, and accessions from Japan, Europe, and U.S.A. into another. Results indicate that Chinese accessions are a rich source of genetic diversity for plant improvement, and that molecular assessments support previously described theoretical melon domestication patterns constructed from historical and archeological evidence.

Genetic diversity of Chinese common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) landraces assessed with simple sequence repeat markers

Common beans were introduced from the Americas to China over 400 years ago and presently constitute an important export crop in many areas of the country. Evaluation of the genetic diversity present in Chinese accessions of common beans is essential for conservation, management and utilization of these genetic resources. The objective of this research was to evaluate a collection of 229 Chinese landraces with 30 microsatellite markers to evaluate the genetic variability, genepool identity and relationships within and between the groups identified among the genotypes. A total of 166 alleles were detected with an average of 5.5 alleles per locus for all microsatellites. The landraces were clustered into two genepools with two subgroups each. The level of diversity for Chinese landraces of Andean origin was higher than for the Chinese landraces of Mesoamerican origin due to the presence of more infrequent alleles in this first group. The range of marker prevalence indices was from 0.288 to 0.676 within the Andean group and from 0.426 to 0.754 within the Mesoamerican group. Two subgroups were identified in each genepool group with one of the Mesoamerican subgroups arising from introgression. Gene flow (Nm) was 0.86 or below between subgroups from different gene pools and 2.6 or above between subgroups within the genepools. We discuss the existence of a secondary center of diversity for common beans in China and the importance of inter genepool introgression.

Identification and Characterization of Anthocyanins by High-performance Liquid Chromatography–Electrospray Ionization–Mass Spectrometry in Herbaceous Peony Species

Petal anthocyanins were systematically identified and characterized by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)–electrospray ionization–mass spectrometry (MS) coupled with diode array detection among nine wild herbaceous peony (Paeonia L.) species (15 accessions). Individual anthocyanins were identified according to the HPLC retention time, elution order, MS fragmentation patterns, and by comparison with authentic standards and published data. Six main anthocyanins, including peonidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside, peonidin-3-O-glucoside-5-O-arabinoside (Pn3G5Ara), peonidin-3-O-glucoside, pelargonidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside, cyanidin-3,5-di-O-glucoside, and cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (Cy3G), were detected. In addition to the well-known major anthocyanins, some minor anthocyanins were identified in herbaceous peony species for the first time. Detection of the unique anthocyanins cyanidin-3-O-glucoside-5-O-galactoside and pelargonidin-3-O-glucoside-5-O-galactoside in both Paeonia anomala L. and P. anomala ssp. veitchii (Lynch) D.Y. Hong & K.Y. Pan indicated these two species should belong to the same taxon. Pn3G5Ara was found only in European wild species and subspecies suggesting different metabolic pathways between European and Chinese accessions. Anthocyanins conjugated with galactose and arabinose were observed in the genus Paeonia for the first time. The North American species, Paeonia tenuifolia L., had high Cy3G content in flower petals. This anthocyanin composition is distinct from the anthocyanin composition in Asian and European species and possibly is responsible for the vivid red coloration in flowers.

Molecular evidence for post-domestication selection in the Waxy gene of Chinese waxy maize

Waxy maize was first reported in China in 1909 and is mainly used in food production in Asia. The evidence for strong domestication selection in the Waxy locus of rice and a selective sweep around its genomic region make us to wonder whether there has been similar selection in Waxy in glutinous maize. To address this issue, DNA sequences of Waxy, three flanking genes and an unlinked gene (Adh1) of 30 accessions sampled from Chinese waxy maize accessions, including representative landraces and inbred lines, were determined in this study. Sharp reduction of nucleotide diversity and significant neutrality tests (Tajima’s D and Fu and Li’s F*) were observed in the Waxy locus in Chinese waxy maize but not in nonglutinous maize; comparison with the unlinked gene confirmed that this pattern was different to Waxy. Sequence analysis across a 143 kb genomic segment centered on the Waxy locus revealed patterns consistent with a selective sweep in the upstream region of Waxy. The selective sweep detected based on current limited genomic sequences exceeded over 50 kb, indicating strong selection in this or a bigger region. However, No sweep effect was detected in the repetitive downstream region of Waxy. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that Chinese waxy maize was domesticated from the cultivated flint maize (Zea mays ssp. mays) that was introduced from the new world. At least two independent deletions in exon 7 (30 bp) and 10 (15 bp) were identified in the Chinese accessions respectively. These findings demonstrate a similar pattern of domestication selection in the Waxy genomic region in both glutinous maize and rice, suggesting that this pattern in the rise of glutinous phenotype is likely in other cereal crops.

Evaluation of Sorghum Germplasm from China against Claviceps africana, Causal Agent of Sorghum Ergot

Forty Chinese sorghum landraces maintained by the USDA-ARS Plant Genetic Resources Conservation Unit, Griffin, GA were evaluated for ergot resistance at the Texas A&M Research Farm, College Station, Texas, during the 2005 and 2006 growing seasons. The male sterile line, ATx623, was included as a susceptible control and three IS8525 derived lines were included as resistant controls. The disease infection level was low in the susceptible check in 2005 due to unfavorable environmental conditions, but the majority of the Chinese accessions showed a higher level of tolerance than the resistant controls and in contrast, infection severity was high in 2006. The IS8525 resistant controls averaged 25% infection compared to an average infection of 18% for the 40 Chinese accessions. Four Chinese accessions, PI63923, PI511832, PI610749, and PI610688, recorded less than 10% ergot infection and thus, these four accessions may possess genes for ergot resistance. Further research is underway to evaluate these accessions under multi-environments to confirm resistance and to determine if the resistance is associated with pollination characteristics. Accepted for publication 19 February 2008. Published 19 May 2008.

Identification of S-genotypes and novel S-RNases in native Chinese pear

SummaryChinese pear (Pyrus spp.) exhibits gametophytic self-incompatibility (GSI), as do other fruit species in the family Rosaceae. This work determined S-locus diversity in 20 native Chinese pear cultivars or wild accessions using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and pollination experiments. After cloning and sequencing the PCR products, the S-genotypes of all 20 pear cultivars or wild accessions were determined. Subsequent sequence analysis showed that P. sinkiangensis Yü ‘Aolian’ (SpS32), P. phaeocarpa Rehd. ‘Diaodan’ (SdSe), P. xerophila Yü ‘Shageda’ (S36Sd) and ‘Xingyeli’ (S22Sc), originating in China, shared some S-RNase genes with P. communis, providing evidence that oriental and occidental Pyrus species may share the same pool of alleles at the S-locus. Two novel S-RNase genes were also discovered in P. ussuriensis ‘Maili’ and ‘Neimenggushanli’, and deposited as S40 and S41, under the accession numbers DQ903313 and DQ988687, respectively. Their deduced amino acid sequences showed high similarity to S11-RNase (100% ) and S6-RNase (94.4%) between the C1 and C3 exons in Malus. The high similarity scores between S-RNases in Pyrus and Malus indicate that the existence of S-RNases predated speciation between Pyrus and Malus.

GENETIC DIVERSITY OF CHINESE THIN-SKINNED MELON CULTIVARS (CUCUMIS MELO L.) BASED ON SIMPLE SEQUENCE REPEAT MARKERS**

ISHS XXVII International Horticultural Congress - IHC2006: International Symposium on Structural and Functional Genomics of Horticultural Plants GENETIC DIVERSITY OF CHINESE THIN-SKINNED MELON CULTIVARS (CUCUMIS MELO L.) BASED ON SIMPLE SEQUENCE REPEAT MARKERS**

Genetic Similarity of Lilium brownii var. colchesteri in Japan and Korea

Genetic similarity of Lilium brownii var. colchesteri cultivated in Japan and Korea was investigated with 302 AFLP markers. Average, maximum and minimum genetic similarity value within the whole accessions of Japan and Korea was 0.9788, whereas those between them and one Chinese accession was 0.9477. The threshold similarity value for identification of clones was estimated to be 0.97 by the same method with 10 clonally propagated individuals of L. longiflorum ‘Hinomoto’ and referring previous reports. 90.2% of pairs within the whole accessions of Japan and Korea represented higher the values than the threshold. Excluding five individuals, 98.9% of pairs showed higher the values. The individuals of L. brownii var. colchesteri in Japan and Korea, therefore, are considered to be almost one clone, and the introduction of the lily into Japan seems to have been through Korean Peninsula.

Genetic Variability and Relationships for Adaptive, Morphological, and Biomass Traits in Chinese Bermudagrass Accessions

Bermudagrass, Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., is geographically widely distributed and represents the most important taxon in the genus in terms of its extensive uses for turf, forage, soil stabilization, and remediation. This warm‐season, sod‐forming grass is indigenous to China, but limited information is available for adaptive, morphological, and biomass traits in the Chinese germplasm. Accordingly, objectives of this study were to quantify genetic variability for 24 morphological, adaptive, and biomass‐related traits and to characterize relationships among traits of 114 Chinese clonal accessions in a field experiment at Stillwater, OK. ‘Tifsport’, ‘Tifway’, ‘Midland’, and ‘Tifton 44’ bermudagrass cultivars were used as controls in the field experiment. Differences among the accessions were significant (P < 0.01 or P < 0.05) and of large magnitude for all response traits. When grouped by ploidy level, variation among accessions was far greater in tetraploids (104) than in pentaploids (3) and hexaploids (7). Response traits of plant height, leaf blade length and width, and internode length and diameter were significantly and positively correlated with each other to various degrees. Biomass yield was significantly associated with the traits of spring greenup, plant height, winter kill rate, internode, and sod density. Winter kill was positively correlated with weed prolificacy, but negatively with spring greenup. Multiple regression and path coefficient analyses indicated plant height, winter kill, greenup, sod density, and internode size to be predictive of forage yield. The large amount of genetic variability among the Chinese accessions should be a valuable resource for the development of improved turf and forage cultivars.

Unique gliadin patterns in Chinese winter wheat cultivars

AbstractCultivated Chinese wheat germplasm has been a valuable genetic resource in international plant breeding. Patterns of gliadin among cultivated Chinese accessions are unknown, despite the proven value and potential novelty. The objective of this work was to analyse the diversity within improved Chinese wheat germplasm. The electrophoretic banding patterns of gliadin in winter wheat cultivars and advanced lines were determined by acid‐polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. For 148 leading commercial cultivars and promising advanced lines used in this study, 48 patterns were identified, 29 corresponding to ω‐gliadin, nine to γ‐gliadin, five to β‐gliadin and five to α‐gliadin. The most frequent patterns were A6 in ω; B in γ; B in β and A in the region of α. A total of 116 band types appeared in the 148 samples: 94 accessions had unique gliadin types, and 22 gliadin, types while not unique, were found in 54 accessions. The gliadin patterns of Chinese wheat cultivars and lines greatly differed from the patterns of wheat lines from other countries. Three patterns, E, J, H, M, N and O in the ω‐zone had not been reported previously. Three wheat zones of China, the Northern Winter Wheat Region, the Yellow and Huai Valley River valleys Winter Wheat Region and the Southwestern Winter Wheat Region, showed different frequencies in their gliadin patterns. This information can be used to monitor genetic diversity with Chinese wheat germplasm.

Exploration of genetic diversity among XinjiangTriticum andTriticum polonicum by AFLP markers

Seventy-two Xinjiang Triticum and Triticum polonicum accessions were subjected to AFLP analyses to discuss the origin of Triticum petropavlovskyi. A total of 91 putative loci were produced by four primer combinations. Among them 56 loci were polymorphic, which is equivalent to 61.53 % of the total number of putative loci. Genetic diversity among 11 T. petropavlovskyi accessions was narrow due to the lowest number (32) of polymorphic loci among the wheat species. Forty four polymorphic loci were found in T. aestivum and T. compactum, whereas the highest polymorphism was observed in T. polonicum. On the basis of the UPGMA clustering and PCO grouping and genetic similarity estimates from the AFLPs, we noted that T. petropavlovskyi was more closely related to the Chinese accessions of T. polonicum than to T. polonicum from other countries. Two accessions of T. aestivum were grouped with T. petropavlovskyi in the UPGMA clustering. Both of them were similar to T. petropavlovskyi in respect of spike structure, i.e. the presence of awn, glume awn and also the presence of leaf pubescence. Six loci, which were commonly absent in Chinese T. polonicum, were also absent in almost all of the T. petropavlovskyi accessions. Findings of this study reduced the probability of an independent allopolyploidization event in the origin of T. petropavlovskyi and indicated a greater degree of gene flow between T. aestivum and T. polonicum leading to T. petropavlovskyi. It is most likely that the P-gene of T. petropavlovskyi hexaploid wheat was introduced from T. polonicum to T. aestivum via a spontaneous introgression or breeding effort.

Genetic diversity of Brassica napus L. Germplasm from China and Europe assessed by some agronomically important characters

The genetic diversity and relationships among 63 rapeseed accessions, including 34 Chinese, 22 Czech, 2 Swedish, 2 German, one French and 2 Canadian accessions, were evaluated by nine agronomically important characters in the field at Yangling, Shaanxi, China. Significant differences between Chinese and European group in plant height, setting position of the first primary branch, number of siliques of the terminal raceme, thousand seed weight and seed yield per plant were detected. There were significant variations in nine agronomic characters among the tested rapeseed accessions. Ward’s minimum variance cluster analysis based on Mahalanobis distances on the raw data of nine agronomic characters clearly separated the European accessions from the Chinese ones. However, the Chinese accessions with erucic acid free and/or low glucosinolates could not be separated from those Chinese accessions with both high erucic acid and glucosinolates. In general, cluster analysis of the 63 accessions based on the selected agronomic characters was consistent with known pedigree information and geographic origin, as well as the previous RAPD results of these accessions. The European rapeseed could be important germplasm resources for enriching the genetic background of Chinese rapeseed, and vice versa.

Correlated Expression of gfp and Bt cry1Ac Gene Facilitates Quantification of Transgenic Hybridization between Brassicas

Gene flow from transgenic oilseed rape (BRASSICA NAPUS) might not be avoidable, thus, it is important to detect and quantify hybridization events with its relatives in real time. Data are presented showing the correlation between genetically linked green fluorescent protein (GFP) with BACILLUS THURINGIENSIS (Bt) CRY1AC gene expression in hybrids formed between transgenic B. NAPUS "Westar" and a wild Chinese accession of wild mustard (B. JUNCEA) and hybridization between transgenic B. NAPUS and a conspecific Chinese landrace oilseed rape. Hybrids were obtained either by spontaneous hybridization in the field or by hand-crossing in a greenhouse. In all cases, transgenic hybrids were selected by GFP fluorescence among seedlings originating from seeds harvested from B. JUNCEA and the Chinese oilseed rape plants. Transgenicity was confirmed by PCR detection of transgenes. GFP fluorescence was easily and rapidly detected in the hybrids under greenhouse and field conditions. Results showed that both GFP fluorescence and Bt protein synthesis decreased as either plant or leaf aged, and GFP fluorescence intensity was closely correlated with Bt protein concentration during the entire vegetative lifetime in hybrids. These findings allow the use of GFP fluorescence as an accurate tool to detect gene-flow in time in the field and to conveniently estimate BT CRY1AC expression in hybrids on-the-plant.

RFLP and AFLP Analysis of Inter- and Intraspecific Variation of Brassica rapa and B. napus Shows that B. rapa Is an Important Genetic Resource for B. napus Improvement

Fingerprinting of 29 accessions of oilseed rape, including seven accessions of Brassica napus, and 22 accessions of B. rapa ( B. campestris) from Europe, North America, and China was analyzed using RFLP and AFLP markers. In total, 1 477 polymorphic RFLP bands and 183 polymorphic AFLP bands from 166 enzyme-probe combinations and two pairs of AFLP primers, respectively, were scored for the 29 accessions. On average, RFLP analysis showed that the Arabidopsis EST probe detected more polymorphic bands in Brassica than the random genomic probe performed. More polymorphic RFLP markers were detected with the digestion of EcoR I or BamH I than HindIII. According to the number of bands amplified from each accession, the copy numbers of each gene in the genomes of B. rapa and B. napus were estimated. The average copy numbers in B. rapa of China, B. rapa of Europe, and B. napus, were 3.2, 3.1, and 2.9, respectively. Genetic distance based on the AFLP data was well correlated with that based on the RFLP data ( r = 0.72, P<0.001), but 0.39 smaller on average. Genetic diversity analysis showed that Chinese B. rapa was more polymorphic than Chinese B. napus and European materials. Some European B. napus accessions were clustered into European B. rapa, which were distinctly different from Chinese B. napus. The larger variations of Chinese accessions of B. rapa suggest that they are valuable in oilseed rape breeding. Novel strategies to use intersubgenomic heterosis between genome of B. rapa (A rA r) and genome of B. napus (A nA nC nC n) were elucidated.

Genetic Diversity of Soybean and the Establishment of a Core Collection Focused on Resistance to Soybean Cyst Nematode

AbstractSoybean cyst nematode (SCN; Heterodera glycines) is one of the most important pests affecting soybean production. The best method of control of SCN is through the development of resistant cultivars. However, limited progress has been made in soybean breeding in China because most modern cultivars have no resistance to SCN. The distribution and phenotype of 432 immune or highly resistant Chinese accessions were surveyed and a primary core collection was selected as a representative sample for further analyses. Using evenly distributed simple sequence repeat markers, five selection methods were applied to the primary core collection and the optimal method was chosen to establish a core collection, which consisted of 28 accessions. These encompassed 70.8% of the allelic variation present in the overall resistant collection. The 28 accessions differed from the reference resistant accessions at the genomic level, indicating that Chinese resistant accessions are distinct from known resistant accessions. This applied core collection provides a rational framework for undertaking diversity surveys, using genetic variation for the investigation of complex traits and for the discovery of novel traits.(Managing editor: Li‐Hui)

A Comparison of U.S. and Chinese Sorghum Germplasm for Early Season Cold Tolerance

ABSTRACTEarly season cold tolerance in grain sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] is a desirable trait for extending its production range and minimizing risks associated with early spring plantings. Ten Chinese Kaoliang accessions were compared with 10 U.S. inbred parental lines and 10 U.S. commercial hybrids for a range of cold tolerance traits under laboratory, growth chamber, and field settings. Chinese lines were superior to both the inbred and hybrid classes in laboratory germination rates and field‐based rates of emergence. In the growth chamber assays, Kaoliangs were not significantly different than U.S. hybrids for most traits measured at either of the two temperature treatments (12 and 24°C), with the exception of shoot length, for which the Chinese germplasm was higher. At the cooler temperature, Kaoliangs were significantly greater than U.S. inbreds for only fresh shoot weight; when tested at the warmer temperature, Kaoliangs had higher dry root weight, fresh and dry shoot weights, and fresh and dry whole plant weights, relative to the U.S. inbred class. The U.S. hybrids had greater total plot weight and final stand counts in the field than Kaoliangs, which were likewise higher than U.S. inbreds for both of these traits. Chinese accessions from this working group would serve as a source of favorable genes primarily for tolerance to low temperatures during the germination and emergence phase of growth in the breeding of cold tolerance sorghum lines.

Genetic Analyses of ChineseCynodonAccessions by Flow Cytometry and AFLP Markers

Bermudagrass [Cynodon dactylon(L.) Pers.] is widely distributed in China, but little information exists on genetic diversity within the germplasm pool. This study was conducted to assess variations in ploidy and amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) amongCynodonaccessions collected from 11 Chinese provinces. Flow cytometry and AFLP analyses were performed on 132 and 119 Chinese accessions, respectively. Four ploidy cytotypes were found among the Chinese accessions. Tetraploid (2n= 4x= 36) accessions were most prevalent (88%), with nuclear genome sizes ranging from 1.96 to 2.30 pg/2C nucleus−1Seven hexaploid (2n= 6x= 54), three pentaploid (2n= 5x =45), and six triploid (2n= 3x= 27) accessions had respective nuclear genome size of 2.90 to 3.13, 2.37 to 2.49, and 1.55 to 1.65 pg/2C nucleus−1The accessions were grouped into five clusters based on 466 polymorphic AFLP bands. Genetic similarity coefficients (GSCs) of two clusters containing ‘Tifway’ and ‘Tifgreen’ ranged from 0.97 to 0.99, suggesting the triploid plants most probably were introduced cultivars from the USA. Within the Chinese indigenous accessions, GSC ranged from 0.65 to 0.99. Tetraploid genotypes had the greatest genetic variation with GSC ranging from 0.69 to 0.99, while pentaploids had the least with GSC ranging from 0.95 to 0.98. Genetic differentiation among the later three ploidy levels is evident. Fully sampling the genetic diversity ofCynodonin China will require more comprehensive collection throughout its distribution.

A Multivariate Analysis of Allozyme Variation in 93 Cannabis Accessions from the VIR Germplasm Collection

Abstract The Vavilov Institute (VIR) in Russia maintains the world's largest collection of Cannabis sativa hemp germplasm through periodic seed regeneration. Sample populations of 93 accessions from the VIR collection were assayed for allozyme variation at 17 gene loci by starch-gel electrophoresis. The frequencies of 47 alleles were subjected to principal components (PC) analysis. A scatter plot on the first two PC axes showed little tendency for the accessions to cluster according to country of origin or their assignment to eco-geographical groups. Three Chinese accessions previously assigned to the hemp biotype of C. indica clustered separately. Eleven other Chinese accessions clustered with accessions from Europe, Asia Minor, and central Asia, and are likely to be hybridized. Conservation ofC. indica hemp landraces is of vital importance to the hemp industry.