Memory Abilities In Children Research Articles

Working Memory Function in Children with Single Side Deafness Using a Bone-Anchored Hearing Implant: A Case-Control Study

The importance of a good hearing function to preserve memory and cognitive abilities has been shown in the adult population, but studies on the pediatric population are currently lacking. This study aims at evaluating the effects of a bone-anchored hearing implant (BAHI) on speech perception, speech processing, and memory abilities in children with single side deafness (SSD). We enrolled n = 25 children with SSD and assessed them prior to BAHI implantation, and at 1-month and 3-month follow-ups after BAHI implantation using tests of perception in silence and perception in phonemic confusion, dictation in silence and noise, and working memory and short-term memory function in conditions of silence and noise. We also enrolled and evaluated n = 15 children with normal hearing. We found a statistically significant difference in performance between healthy children and children with SSD before BAHI implantation in the scores of all tests. After 3 months from BAHI implantation, the per­formance of children with SSD was comparable to that of healthy subjects as assessed by tests of speech perception, working memory, and short-term memory function in silence condition, while differences persisted in the scores of the dictation test (both in silence and noise conditions) and of the working memory function test in noise condition. Our data suggest that in children with SSD BAHI improves speech perception and memory. Speech rehabilitation may be necessary to further improve speech processing.

PO-124 The effect of physical education on children's learning and memory ability

Objective Learning and memory ability is one of the symbols of higher animals. Compared with other functional markers, learning and memory ability is the most unique. Early childhood is a critical period of learning and memory in a person's life. As a child's initial stage of brain development, environmental factors in early childhood play a key role in the development of the brain. If this critical period is missed, the flexibility required for learning and memory ability will be lost. By consulting the literature, there are few studies on sports related to learning and memory in China, and the results of research on whether physical exercise can improve memory ability at home and abroad are inconsistent. This study is devoted to the analysis of the current research on the ability of sports to learn and remember, and lays the foundation for the study of the impact of physical activity on the learning and memory of young children.
 Methods This study used literature data method, logic analysis method, and inductive method to conduct statistics and analysis on the learning and memory ability of children in sports. The literature shows that children's participation in physical activity is mainly sports games, basic gymnastics and sports dance. This study studies the effects of different physical activities on children's learning and memory ability from three aspects.
 Results 1. The influence of sports games on children's memory ability is mainly reflected by the memory of the game process. Studies have shown that children's observation ability and memory ability are more affected by sports games, and children have significant improvement in learning and memory ability. Through training, children's ability to use memory strategies can be effectively improved. 2. The basic gymnastics movements are simple, but there are many types of movements. In the process of learning children, it is necessary to connect scattered gymnastics movements to activate the learning and memory cells of the brain. In the learning process of basic gymnastics, accompanied by the rhythm of music, the movements are varied, and the children need attention. In addition, the children are more sensitive to the movements, and are good at imitating movements. The rhythm of the temperament is strong, the interest of the children is increased, and the movements are remembered easily, memory function is activated. 3. The children's brain remembers the characteristics of the dance movements, and the body begins to display and achieve a state of physical and mental pleasure. When performing sports dance programs, the four-limb movement drives the brain movement, which stimulates the brain, enhances learning motivation, improves learning and memory ability, and promotes the intelligence development of children.
 Conclusions During exercise, the brain can excite the motor central nervous system to the muscles, and the working condition of the muscles can also be transmitted to the brain through the motor nerves. The brain nerve center in charge of language, memory, thinking, etc. Which is excited in the nerve center of the brain in charge of exercise. When diffused, it will be protectively inhibited, so that these nerves will be relaxed. The interaction between nerves and muscles will enable the body to form a protective mechanism and form a memory effect, so that children can reduce the intensity of physical activity and reduce injuries. The results show that physical activity enhances learning and memory. The rich form of children's sports has increased the interest of young children in participating in physical activities. Not only does it improve the flexibility and sensitivity of young children through participation in sports activities, but also enhances children's

Development of the Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP): Chronic binding of antagonist to N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) during brain development induces impairment of learning and memory abilities of children

The Adverse Outcome Pathways (AOPs) are designed to provide mechanistic understanding of complex biological systems and pathways of toxicity that result in adverse outcomes (AOs) relevant to regulatory endpoints. AOP concept captures in a structured way the causal relationships resulting from initial chemical interaction with biological target(s) (molecular initiating event) to an AO manifested in individual organisms and/or populations through a sequential series of key events (KEs), which are cellular, anatomical and/or functional changes in biological processes. An AOP provides the mechanistic detail required to support chemical safety assessment, the development of alternative methods and the implementation of an integrated testing strategy.An example of the AOP relevant to developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) is described here following the requirements of information defined by the OECD Users' Handbook Supplement to the Guidance Document for developing and assessing AOPs. In this AOP, the binding of an antagonist to glutamate receptor N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDAR) receptor is defined as MIE. This MIE triggers a cascade of cellular KEs including reduction of intracellular calcium levels, reduction of brain derived neurotrophic factor release, neuronal cell death, decreased glutamate presynaptic release and aberrant dendritic morphology. At organ level, the above mentioned KEs lead to decreased synaptogenesis and decreased neuronal network formation and function causing learning and memory deficit at organism level, which is defined as the AO. There are in vitro, in vivo and epidemiological data that support the described KEs and their causative relationships rendering this AOP relevant to DNT evaluation in the context of regulatory purposes.

Effects of developmental arsenite exposure on hippocampal synapses in mouse offspring.

Arsenic exposure through drinking water can impair the learning and memory ability of children in China and other countries. Synaptic plasticity plays a key role in the process of learning and memory. Alterations in the expression of presynaptic and postsynaptic proteins can be used to evaluate synaptic plasticity, and further to evaluate impairment in learning and memory ability. Thereby, the aim of this study was to explore the mechanisms underlying arsenic neurotoxicity by focusing on alterations in the hippocampal synapses of mouse offspring induced by developmental arsenite exposure. Mother mice and their offspring were exposed to 0, 25, 50 or 100 mg L-1 arsenite via drinking water from the first day of gestation until postnatal day (PND) 35. The spatial learning and memory ability of PND 35 mice was evaluated using a Morris water maze. The levels of speciated arsenicals in the brain of PND 7, 14, 21 and 35 mice were analyzed by hydride generation coupled with atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Synaptic structure and protein expression of postsynaptic density protein-95 (PSD-95) and synaptophysin (SYP) in the hippocampus of PND 7, 14, 21 and 35 mice were examined. The findings from this study disclosed that the spatial learning ability of mice could be impaired by exposure to 25 mg L-1 arsenite; however spatial memory ability could not be impaired until exposure to 100 mg L-1 arsenite. The thickness of the postsynaptic density (PSD) decreased, whereas the width of the synaptic cleft widened significantly in arsenite exposure groups. Moreover, protein expression of both PSD-95 and SYP decreased significantly in arsenite exposure groups. In conclusion, the results of this study demonstrated that developmental arsenite exposure could depress the expression of synaptic proteins, subsequently cause alteration in synaptic structures, and finally contribute to arsenite-induced deficits in spatial learning and memory ability in mouse offspring.

Linking GABA and glutamate levels to cognitive skill acquisition during development.

Developmental adjustments in the balance of excitation and inhibition are thought to constrain the plasticity of sensory areas of the cortex. It is unknown however, how changes in excitatory or inhibitory neurochemical expression (glutamate, γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA)) contribute to skill acquisition during development. Here we used single‐voxel proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H‐MRS) to reveal how differences in cortical glutamate vs. GABA ratios relate to face proficiency and working memory abilities in children and adults. We show that higher glutamate levels in the inferior frontal gyrus correlated positively with face processing proficiency in the children, but not the adults, an effect which was independent of age‐dependent differences in underlying cortical gray matter. Moreover, we found that glutamate/GABA levels and gray matter volume are dissociated at the different maturational stages. These findings suggest that increased excitation during development is linked to neuroplasticity and the acquisition of new cognitive skills. They also offer a new, neurochemical approach to investigating the relationship between cognitive performance and brain development across the lifespan. Hum Brain Mapp 36:4334–4345, 2015. © 2015 The Authors. Human Brain Mapping Published byWiley Periodicals, Inc.

The influence of word characteristics on the vocabulary of children with cochlear implants.

The goal of this study was to explore the effects of phonotactic probability, word length, word frequency, and neighborhood density on the words known by children with cochlear implants (CIs) varying in vocabulary outcomes in a retrospective analysis of a subset of data from a longitudinal study of hearing loss. Generalized linear mixed modeling was used to examine the effects of these word characteristics at 3 time points: preimplant, postimplant, and longitudinal follow-up. Results showed a robust effect of neighborhood density across group and time, whereas the effect of frequency varied by time. Significant effects of phonotactic probability or word length were not detected. Taken together, these findings suggest that children with CIs may be able to use spoken language structure in a manner similar to their normal hearing counterparts, despite the differences in the quality of the input. The differences in the effects of phonotactic probability and word length imply a difficulty in initiating word learning and limited working memory ability in children with CIs.

The Effect of Phoneme Analysis Training on Underachieved Children's Memory Ability

본 연구에서는 학습부진 아동의 기초 학습 기능 향상을 위한 음소분석훈련 프로그램을 개발하고 기억능력 평가를 통해 그 효과를 검증하고자하였다. 음소분석훈련이 학습부진아동의 기억능력과 작업기억 향상에 미치는 영향을 알아보기 위해 G도 소재 초등학교 4, 5학년에 재학 중인 31명의 아동들을 선발하였고, 학습부진아동을 선별하여 실험집단을 구성하고, 일반아동들을 비교집단으로 하여, 주 1회씩 12회 프로그램을 실시하였고, 사전과 사후의 측정치를 비교하였다. 반복측정 변량분석을 통해 SVLT-C와 숫자외우기 소검사의 8개 측정치에 대해서 처치조건×측정시기 상호작용 효과를 보았으며, 실험집단에서 시행3, 회상, 총학습량 3개척도가 훈련 전에 비해 유의미한 상승을 보이는 것으로 나타났다. 이는 학습부진 아동들의기억능력이 프로그램 수행의 영향을 유의미하게 향상되었음을 시사한다. 단, 작업기억은 상승 양상이 나타나지 않았다. 마지막으로 본 연구의 의의와 그리고 추후 연구를 위한 제언들이 논의되었다.

The Plasticity of Executive Function of Children

The plasticity of working memory ability in children was demonstrated. The study adopts double-blind controlled experimental design. Researchers trained the working memory ability of normal children and special children by remodeled working memory span, N-back, running memory and GO-NOGO tasks from 15-30 days, moreover 15-25 minutes per day. The study found that working memory Training not only improve the children's working memory ability, but also transfer to other higher cognitive functions. It even can improve clinical symptoms of ADHD children. The researchers also found that training effect can be maintained for 3-6 months. The study to investigate Whether Central executive function training can promote children cognitive function, does children cognitive function training promote cognitive development or transitory improved and how to effect the development of children cognitive process by traning will become the new trends in this field..This can provide effective clinical intervention and treatment tool for working memory deficit children.

Memory abilities in children with mathematical difficulties: Comorbid language difficulties matter

The present study investigated cognitive abilities in children with difficulties in mathematics only (n=48, M=8years and 5months), combined mathematical and language difficulty (n=27, M=8years and 1month) and controls (n=783, M=7years and 11months). Cognitive abilities were measured with seven subtests, tapping visual perception, selective attention, memory, and reasoning, as well as full-scale-IQ. Children with difficulties in mathematics only differed in their cognitive abilities, not only from controls, but also from children with comorbid language difficulties. Children with mathematical difficulties only performed worse than controls in a selective attention measure, but not in any working memory measure, meanwhile children with difficulties in mathematics and language performed worse than controls in verbal working memory components, but not selective attention. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Development of allocentric spatial memory abilities in children from 18 months to 5 years of age

Episodic memories for autobiographical events that happen in unique spatiotemporal contexts are central to defining who we are. Yet, before 2years of age, children are unable to form or store episodic memories for recall later in life, a phenomenon known as infantile amnesia. Here, we studied the development of allocentric spatial memory, a fundamental component of episodic memory, in two versions of a real-world memory task requiring 18month- to 5-year-old children to search for rewards hidden beneath cups distributed in an open-field arena. Whereas children 25–42-months-old were not capable of discriminating three reward locations among 18 possible locations in absence of local cues marking these locations, children older than 43months found the reward locations reliably. These results support previous findings suggesting that allocentric spatial memory, if present, is only rudimentary in children under 3.5years of age. However, when tested with only one reward location among four possible locations, children 25–39-months-old found the reward reliably in absence of local cues, whereas 18–23-month-olds did not. Our findings thus show that the ability to form a basic allocentric representation of the environment is present by 2years of age, and its emergence coincides temporally with the offset of infantile amnesia. However, the ability of children to distinguish and remember closely related spatial locations improves from 2 to 3.5years of age, a developmental period marked by persistent deficits in long-term episodic memory known as childhood amnesia. These findings support the hypothesis that the differential maturation of distinct hippocampal circuits contributes to the emergence of specific memory processes during early childhood.

Spatial and visual working memory ability in children with difficulties in arithmetic word problem solving

Although various studies support the multicomponent nature of visuospatial working memory, to date there is no general consensus on the distinction of its components. A difference is usually proposed between visual and spatial components of working memory, but the individual roles of these components in mathematical learning disabilities remains unclear. The present study aimed to examine the involvement of visual and spatial working memory in poor problem-solvers compared with children with normal level of achievement. Fourth-grade participants were presented with tasks measuring phonological loop, central executive, and visual versus spatial memory. In two separate experiments, both designed to distinguish visual and spatial component involvement, poor problem-solvers specifically failed on spatial—but not visual or phonological—working memory tasks. Results are discussed in the light of possible working memory models, and specifically demonstrate that problem-solving ability can benefit from analysis of spatial processes, which involves ability to manipulate and transform relevant information; instead, no benefit is gained from the analysis of visual pictorial detail.

Attention and working memory abilities in children treated for acute lymphoblastic leukemia

To extend investigation beyond global cognitive measures prevalent in the literature, this study examined attention and working memory (WM) abilities of survivors of childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), the separate contributions of attention and WM to intelligence quotient (IQ), and their association with neuroimaging changes. Ninety-seven children with ALL received risk-directed therapy based on presenting clinical and biological factors. During consolidation therapy, low-risk patients received half the dose of intravenous methotrexate that standard-risk/high-risk patients received, and fewer doses of triple intrathecal therapy. Patients were classified according to end of consolidation magnetic resonance imaging scans (normal or leukoencephalopathy), and continuous measures of white matter structure were computed. As part of the protocol study, children completed cognitive assessment 2 years later (completion of therapy), using Digit Span Forward (DSF) for attention and Digit Span Backward (DSB) for WM. For the total sample and the standard-/high-risk group, Total Digit Span (TDS), DSF, and DSB were impaired relative to norms (P<.05). In the low-risk group, only DSB was impaired (P<.0001). Across groups, a higher percentage of patients performed below the average range (scale score<7) on DSB (66%) compared with the DSF (14%) or TDS (18%). Regression analysis indicated that DSB predicted estimated IQ (P<.05), after accounting for DSF. Leukoencephalopathy was predictive of lower TDS (P<.05). WM appears to be especially sensitive to treatment-related changes in ALL survivors, detecting difficulties potentially missed by global intelligence measures. These findings may facilitate the identification of vulnerable neural pathways and the development of targeted cognitive interventions.

Executive Functions and Memory Abilities in Children With 22q11.2 Deletion Syndrome

Velo-cardio-facial syndrome or 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is the most common known microdeletion syndrome. One of the genes in the deleted region is the catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) gene, which is thought to have significant effects on cognition through its influence on dopamine metabolism. The aim of the present study was to better characterize the cognitive phenotype in a large cohort children with 22q11DS compared with sibling controls and to investigate if the cognitive deficits in 22q11DS were modulated by COMT expression. The memory, executive function and attentional abilities of children with 22q11DS (n = 50) compared to sibling controls (n = 31), were measured. Also, within children with 22q11DS, a preliminary exploration was carried out of the relationship between cognitive ability and COMT genotype. Overall, the 22q11DS group had significantly reduced scores on tests of memory (especially in visual memory) and executive function (particularly in planning, working memory, and motor organization) compared with sibling controls. No association, however, was identified between COMT genotype and cognitive function. Although 22q11DS children have specific cognitive deficits, differences in COMT do not account for these findings.

Dysfunctional neural network of spatial working memory contributes to developmental dyscalculia

The underlying neural mechanisms of developmental dyscalculia (DD) are still far from being clearly understood. Even the behavioral processes that generate or influence this heterogeneous disorder are a matter of controversy. To date, the few studies examining functional brain activation in children with DD mainly focus on number and counting related tasks, whereas studies on more general cognitive domains that are involved in arithmetical development, such as working memory are virtually absent. There are several studies showing a close relationship between DD and spatial working memory [Camos, V. (2008). Low working memory capacity impedes both efficiency and learning of number transcoding in children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 99(1), 37-57; McLean, J. F., & Hitch, G. J. (1999). Working memory impairments in children with specific arithmetic learning difficulties. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 74(3), 240-260; Rosselli, M., Matute, E., Pinto, N., & Ardila, A. (2006). Memory abilities in children with subtypes of dyscalculia. Developmental Neuropsychology, 30(3), 801-818; Siegel, L. S., & Ryan, E. B. (1989). The development of working memory in normally achieving and subtypes of learning disabled children. Child Development, 60(4), 973-980]. The relationship between these two mechanisms is still matter of debate, but this study follows the assumption that poor spatial working memory capacity may hinder the acquisition of spatial number representations in children with DD [Geary, D. C. (1993). Mathematical disabilities: Cognitive, neuropsychological, and genetic components. Psychological Bulletin, 114(2), 345-362; von Aster, M., & Shalev, R. S. (2007). Number development and developmental dyscalculia. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 49(11), 868-873]. Using functional MRI the current study compares brain activity associated with spatial working memory processes in 8-10-year-old children with DD and normally achieving controls. Both groups showed significant spatial working memory related activity in a network including occipital and parietal regions. Children with DD showed weaker neural activation compared to the control group during a spatial working memory task in the right intraparietal sulcus (IPS), the right insula and the right inferior frontal lobe. Performance tests outside the scanner showed impaired working memory proficiency in children with DD. Bringing behavioral performance and neural activity together we found significant correlations of right IPS activity with performance on the verbal digit span forward and the spatial Corsi Block Tapping test. Our findings demonstrate for the first time an involvement of spatial working memory processes in the neural underpinnings of DD. These poor spatial working memory processes may inhibit the formation of spatial number representations (mental numberline) as well as the storage and retrieval of arithmetical facts.

Working memory performance following paediatric traumatic brain injury

Primary objective: The present study investigated working memory ability in children who sustained moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injuries in relation to pre-injury, injury-related and developmental factors. It was hypothesized that there would be a correlation between performance- and rater-based working memory measures; factors predictive of working memory impairment would include earlier age at injury, more severe injury, longer time since injury and poorer overall cognitive functioning; and working memory performance would be significantly impaired when compared to normative populations.Methods and procedures: Working memory was assessed in 62 children using a traditional performance measure (digit span backward) and parent report (Behaviour Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF)).Main outcomes and results: Contrary to prediction, there was no statistical association between performance- and rater-based measures of working memory. Regression analyses revealed injury severity, time-since-injury, overall cognitive ability and attention span were predictive of working memory performance. As a group, working memory was impaired relative to normative samples on both measures.Conclusions: Performance- and rater-based working memory measures, while not significantly correlated, are both sensitive to acquired cognitive dysfunction following paediatric traumatic brain injury. Demographic and clinical factors may be used to predict cognitive outcomes, educate caregivers and design clinical interventions.

Memory Ability of Children with Complex Communication Needs

Phonological memory is central to language and reading and writing skills. Many children with complex communication needs (CCN) experience problems with reading and writing acquisition. The reason could be because of the absence of articulatory ability, which might have a negative affect on phonological memory. Phonological and visuo-spatial short-term memory and working memory were tested in 15 children with CCN, aged 5 – 12 years, and compared to children with natural speech matched for gender, and mental and linguistic age. Results indicated weaker phonological STM and visuo-spatial STM and WM in children with CCN. The lack of articulatory ability could be assumed to affect subvocal rehearsal and, therefore, phonological memory which, in turn, may affect reading and writing acquisition. Weak visuo-spatial memory could also complicate the use of Bliss symbols and other types of augmentative and alternative communication.

Memory Abilities in Children With Subtypes of Dyscalculia

This study examines (a) mathematical skills of 2 subgroups of children with developmental dyscalculia (DD)—1 group with DD only and a second group with DD plus reading disorders (RDD)—and (b) analyzes the memory skills of both groups of children. Fifty 11- and 12-year-old children were selected from public schools in Guadalajara, Mexico. Seventeen children had DD only, 13 had RDD, and 20 were normal controls. Testing included 10 calculation and 6 memory subtests taken from the Evaluacion Neuropsicologica Infantil (Matute, Rosselli, Ardila, & Ostrosky, in press). Results indicated that children with DD and children with RDD show a similar pattern of mathematical impairment. Both subgroups had significantly lower scores than the control group in working memory tasks. In addition, the RDD group had significantly lower scores than the control group in visual learning and semantic memory. Although the RDD group scored lower than the DD group in most memory tests, this difference did not reach significance. Working memory tests (digits backwards and sentence repetition) appeared to be the best predictors of mathematical test scores and may represent a major cognitive defect in children with specific defects in mathematics.

Working memory abilities in children with special educational needs

This study investigates the distinctive working memory profiles of children with learning difficulties. A sample of 64 children aged 7 to 11 years with recognised special educational needs at varying stages participated in this study. They were tested on measures of the central executive, phonological loop and visuospatial skills. The children in all three special needs subgroups performed below the expected attainment levels for their age in central executive and visuo-spatial tasks, but not in measures of the phonological loop. Very low levels of working memory performance were many times more common in the special needs sample than in a large sample of children without special educational needs. Deficits in working memory performance were more marked in children with statements of special needs than those at earlier stages of recognition of the need for educational support, particularly in measures of the central executive. These children struggle to meet the demands of complex tasks that require them to process, maintain, and store information simultaneously. It is suggested that this difficulty may underpin their failures to make normal educational progress.

Verbal Memory Abilities of Children With Brain Tumors

Several critical neuroanatomical structures and pathways for memory performance are located in the third ventricle region. This led us to predict that verbal memory abilities would be more impaired in children treated for third ventricle tumors compared to those treated for cerebellar tumors. Archival data was obtained from 24 pediatric patients with third ventricle region tumors and 18 pediatric patients with cerebellar tumors. Neuroradiological verifications of tumor involvement and hydrocephalus severity (i.e., Evans Index) on preoperative scans and MRIs proximal to the time of the neuropsychological evaluation were conducted. The potential confounds of hydrocephalus severity, seizure medication, age, radiation treatment, and chemotherapy were addressed. Verbal IQ was comparable between tumor groups and in the Average range. The third ventricle region group performed significantly worse on list learning and delayed list recall compared to the cerebellar group. Their mean performance was in the clinically impaired range on both trials. The third ventricle region tumor group performed better than the cerebellar tumor group on Digit Span, a basic repetition, attention span task. These findings support the hypothesis that pediatric patients with third ventricle region brain tumors are more likely to be impaired on verbal recall tasks compared to pediatric patients with cerebellar brain tumors. In contrast, patients who were treated for cerebellar tumors were more impaired on the basic repetition, attention span task compared to patients who were treated for third ventricle tumors. Future studies should examine the specific neuroanatomical structures and pathways that are damaged and may influence differential cognitive impairments in children.

Técnicas para evaluar la memoria del niño

This is a review of the more relevant instruments to measure memory abilities of children and adolescents. The strengths, limitations and future developments of these instruments are discussed. Memory disturbances are present in developing individuals as a consequence of perinatal damage, brain trauma, neuroinfections, epilepsy etc. Also mnesic deficits may be observed as an element of language and learning disorders. Probably all types of amnesic syndromes well known in adults do exist in children, but there are only a few observations documented in the literature. Here are described the available batteries (TOMAL, WRAML, CMS, BEM 144) and specific tests (RBMT C,VADS, CAVLT 2, etc.) that are useful for the diagnostic measurement of verbal and visual memory abilities in children and adolescents; a Spanish version and validation is available for many of these instruments. The use of tests must be preceded by structured clinical interviews and questionnaires for parents and teachers. In spite of all these instruments, the diagnosis must be based on clinical criteria; new developments of instruments adapted to children aged under five years have to be done. All aspects of memory functions shall be considered procedural, explicit (semantic an autobiographical), prospective, etc. , parallel forms and typifications on more large samples are claimed.