Child Interaction Research Articles

Identifying Research-Based Practices for Increasing Peer Interaction in Children with Hearing Impairment: A Review of the Literature

Establishing peer interaction is critical for all childhood development, especially for children with hearing impairment (HI), who tend to experience a lot of difficulties in interaction. Practices aiming to promote peer interaction in children with HI need to be informed by evidence from quality research. This paper aims to review and evaluate research studies that focus on interaction between children with HI and their peers (with or without HI) in self-contained and inclusive classrooms. Seven empirical studies published in peer-reviewed journals from 1990 to 2023 were examined and evaluated, using the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC, 2014) quality indicators. Several practice themes emerged after coding these studies: multifaceted training, parallel talk, social intervention, and social stories. Results indicated that most of the reviewed studies met the majority of identified quality indicators, including context and settings, participants, intervention agents, description of practice, and data analysis. However, few studies reported implementation fidelity, and none of the studies met the quality indicator related to outcome measures for dependent variables. The limitations of this review, implications, and suggestions for future research are discussed. Keywords: peer interaction, social interaction, literature review, hearing impairment, research-based practice

Characteristics of the parent‐child relationship at 18‐months of age predict the onset and type of mental disorders in childhood and adolescence: A longitudinal nested birth cohort study

AbstractBackgroundThe quality of the parent‐child relationship in the first years of childhood has been associated with various long‐term mental health outcomes. However, it is unclear whether specific characteristics of the early parent‐child relationship predict the onset of mental disorders. The aim of this study was therefore to examine child, parent, and dyadic characteristics of the early parent‐child relationship as predictors of mental disorders in childhood and adolescence.MethodAs a part of the Copenhagen Child Cohort 2000, a child cohort of 295 children participated in the study at 18‐months of age and were subsequently followed until late adolescence. Child, parent, and dyadic dimensions of the early parent‐child relationship were assessed using the observational Parent‐Child Early Relational Assessment. The outcomes were mental disorders subsequently diagnosed in childhood and adolescence.ResultsCox‐regression analyses suggested that parent characteristics involving negative affect and behavior, intrusiveness and insensitivity during early parent child interactions were associated with increased risk of the child being diagnosed with a mental disorder at later ages. However, variation was noted across specific diagnoses. Parental negative affect and behavior was specifically associated with increased risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, while infant dysregulation and irritability was specifically associated with increased risk of autism spectrum disorders. These results remained significant after adjusting for parental mental disorders and early mental health problems of the child.ConclusionDisorder‐specific associations were observed between dysfunctions in the early parent‐child relationship and subsequent mental disorders. Improving such early relational dysfunctions may support the goals of early interventions that aim to mitigate the risk of mental disorders from a very early age.

Empathic Accuracy Across Childhood, Adolescence, and Within Parent‐Child Interactions: A Systematic Review

ABSTRACTEmpathic accuracy (EA) is the ability to precisely understand someone else's current thoughts and feelings during an interaction. EA has mostly been studied in adult populations; variations in EA in children/adolescents could be explained by age, developmental changes during childhood, and environmental factors. A systematic review was conducted to synthesize the existing literature on EA in childhood, adolescence, and during parent–child interactions. Following PRISMA guidelines, five electronic databases were searched, yielding 24 references. Most studies were conducted in samples of adolescents. Additionally, the operationalization of EA varied across studies. Although studies showed minor variations of EA with age, there is no clear association of age with EA during childhood. Children and adolescents also achieve similar scores as adults. Additionally, children's and parents' EAs are linked to parents' and children's behaviors during interactions. EA is also associated with gender beliefs: parents and children hold beliefs that girls and mothers should have higher empathy than boys and fathers. It is not possible to determine age variation in EA during childhood. This systematic review highlights a lack of transparent methodologies and specific assessments of EA in children and adolescents in the current literature.

Cultural Identity Formations in Arabic Children's Literature

This article explores the intricate relationship between national identity and environmental identity in Arabic children's literature, particularly in the context of globalization. It employs a qualitative approach, analyzing existing children's literature and case studies to understand how globalization impacts these identities. The findings indicate that national identity, defined as a sense of belonging to a specific community with its unique history and culture, is increasingly threatened by globalization. This exposure to diverse cultures can erode cultural specificity, leading to diminished social cohesion. Conversely, environmental identity, which reflects individuals' connections to their natural surroundings and awareness of environmental issues, is gaining prominence. This identity fosters values of sustainability and collective responsibility for natural resource protection. The article concludes that conflicts between national and environmental identities emerge as societies grapple with preserving cultural characteristics while addressing environmental challenges. The interplay of these identities is particularly significant in Arabic children’s literature, where cultural narratives shape children's self-awareness and orientation. Arabic children's literature serves as a critical medium, reflecting the cultural values and traditions of Arab society and contributing to a rich and diverse cultural identity. By embodying children's daily experiences and cultural interactions, this literature plays a vital role in fostering national pride and environmental consciousness among young readers.

Emotional Availability in Autism Intervention: A Mother–Father Comparative Analysis

Background/Objectives: The literature highlights the importance of parental involvement in autism treatment. However, much research has predominantly focused on child outcomes and cognitive dimensions. This study explores the impact of an early intensive intervention with parental involvement, focusing on changes in parents’ affective exchanges. Notably, given the paucity of studies on fathers in the intervention context, this study examines the comparative trajectory of change considering both caregivers. Methods: Twenty autistic preschoolers were monitored for one year during a parental-based intervention. Child–mother and child–father play interactions were coded with the Emotional Availability Scales at baseline and at 12 months. Repeated measures linear mixed-effect models were employed to investigate time and caregiver effects and their interaction. Results: Results highlighted both similarities and differences in change trajectories between caregivers. Parental sensitivity, structuring, and non-intrusiveness significantly increased for both parents with fathers showing more prominent gains in structuring the interaction while being non-intrusive. Child responsiveness and involvement significantly increased, showing similar trajectories with both caregivers. Children were generally more involved while interacting with their fathers. Conclusion: Parent–child interactions with caregivers evolved toward more adaptive exchanges regarding emotional availability for children’s and parents’ dimensions. Fathers appeared to be particularly receptive regarding acquiring structuring abilities and non-intrusive behaviors. Our results underscore the importance of investigating parental features as well as the importance of actively involving caregivers to support distal outcomes and generalization.

Enhancing Children's Language Skills Through Storytelling Method with Audio-Visual Media

Early childhood education is an important period in language development, which is one of the fundamental aspects in the formation of communication and interaction of children. This study aims to improve the language skills of children aged 5-6 years through the storytelling method with audio-visual media. The research used the literature study method by collecting data from various related scientific journals. The results showed that the storytelling method using audio visual media can significantly improve children's language skills, both in the aspects of listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Audio-visual media attracts children's attention, makes the learning process more fun, and provides interactive experiences that motivate children to actively participate. The conclusion of this study is that the storytelling method using audio visual media is an effective learning approach in developing early childhood language skills.

Parent–Child Interaction Therapy for Disruptive Behavior: A Systematic Review of Effectiveness in Different Settings

Background: Parent–child interaction therapy (PCIT) is an evidence-based intervention for children with behavioral problems. This systematic review assesses the efficacy of PCIT in reducing disruptive behavior problems (DBPs) by analyzing outcomes across diverse populations and settings. Methods: Studies were identified through an online search of the PubMed, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, and Embase databases, with a search period ranging from 2014 to 2024. This review was registered on Open OSF (n) TVFQ5. Results: Research studies demonstrate that PCIT is effective across a variety of DBP conditions, showing significant reductions in child behavioral problems and parenting stress. PCIT’s adaptability, effectiveness, and potential for widespread use have been validated in both specialized and community settings, including diverse and high-risk populations. Conclusions: This systematic review highlights PCIT’s overall effectiveness in reducing disruptive behaviors and improving parent–child relationships across diverse settings and populations. It emphasizes the need for further research into its long-term efficacy, adaptability in multicultural contexts, and potential integration with technology for enhanced dissemination and effectiveness.

Exploring the Use of Smartwatches and Activity Trackers for Health-Related Purposes for Children Aged 5 to 11 years: Systematic Review.

Digital health interventions targeting behavior change are promising in adults and adolescents; however, less attention has been given to younger children. The proliferation of wearables, such as smartwatches and activity trackers, that support the collection of and reflection on personal health data highlights an opportunity to consider novel approaches to supporting health in young children (aged 5-11 y). This review aims to investigate how smartwatches and activity trackers have been used across child health interventions (for children aged 5-11 y) for different health areas, specifically to identify the population characteristics of those beingtargeted, describe the characteristics of the devices being used, and report the feasibility and acceptability of these devices for health-related applications with children. We searched 10 databases (CINAHL, Embase, ACM Digital Library, IEEE Xplore, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, and MEDLINE) to identify relevant literature in March 2023. The inclusion criteria for studies were as follows: (1) peer-reviewed, empirical studies; (2) published in English; (3) involved a child aged 5 to 11 years using a smartwatch for health-related purposes. Two researchers independently screened articles to assess eligibility. One researcher extracted data relating to the 3 aims and synthesized the results using narrative and thematic synthesis. The database searches identified 3312 articles, of which 15 (0.45%) were included in this review. Three (20%) articles referred to the same intervention. In 77% (10/13) of the studies, the devices were used to target improvements in physical activity. Other applications included using smartwatches to deliver interventions for emotional regulation and asthma management. In total, 9 commercial devices were identified, many of which delivered minimal data feedback on the smartwatch or activity tracker, instead relying on a partner app running on a linked parental smartphone with greater functionality. Of the 13 studies, 8 (62%) used devices designed for adults rather than children. User feedback was positive overall, demonstrating the acceptability and feasibility of using these devices with children. However, the studies often lacked a child-focused approach, with 3 (23%) studies gathering user feedback only from parents. Interventions involving smartwatches and activity trackers for children aged 5 to 11 years remain limited, primarily focusing on enhancing physical activity, with few studies investigating other health applications. These devices often provide limited data feedback and functionality to support children's independent engagement with the data, relying on paired smartphone apps managed by caregivers, who control access and facilitate children's interaction with the data. Future research should adopt child-centered methods in the design and evaluation of these technologies, integrating children's perspectives alongside their caregivers, to ensure that they are not only feasible and acceptable but also meaningful and effective for young children. PROSPERO CRD42022373813, https://tinyurl.com/4kxu8zss.

Exploring the Effectiveness of Combining Social Skills Training and Two Parent Programs in Improving the Social Competence of Children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Background/Objectives: The objective of the present study was to examine the extent of effectiveness of two parent programs to complement an intervention in social skills for children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methods: Fifteen children with ADHD participated in a program to develop social skills, while their parents were randomly assigned to two parent training programs that had different formats: a Parenting School (N = 8) or a Parent Workshop (N = 7). There were no significant differences between parents of both groups in knowledge about ADHD, obedience to commands, or strategies for addressing desirable and undesirable behaviors. The pre- and post-intervention social cognition and social interaction of ADHD children were assessed using a SSRS-C questionnaire (Social Skills Rating System—Child Form) and a controlled chat room, which allowed for observing how children interact in a virtual environment. Results: Children showed significant improvements in social competencies, such as identifying social cues, generating appropriate responses, and reducing hostile responses, with large effect sizes, following the social skills intervention. Comparing the two parent training programs, the Parent Workshop program demonstrated significant improvements in social cue detection and conversation memory, with more children achieving reliable changes in these variables than in the Parenting School program. Conclusions: Finally, the reliable change indices for children showed that the Parent Workshop demonstrated improvements in more than half of the subjects across all analyzed variables. Study limitations, implications for research and practice are discussed.

Comparing Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) to Regulation Focused Psychotherapy for Children (RFP-C) with Externalizing Behavior Problems: The Cases of "Jack" and "Oliver"

This commentary examines the case studies by Brooks et al. (2025) of “Jack” and “Oliver,” two children with externalizing behavior problems. Both cases were drawn from a successful randomized control trial (RCT) using the model of Regulation Focused Psychotherapy for Children (RFP-C), with Jack being a successful case, and Oliver, an unsuccessful case. We first commend Brooks et al. in a number of ways for the contributions their RCT and the cases of Jack and Oliver make to the psychotherapy research literature. At the same time, we raise methodological questions about the selection of Jack and Oliver and the fact that Jack’s pre-test questionnaires were completed by Jack’s mother, while the post-test measures were completed by Jack's father, introducing the unassessed variable of inter-rater reliability. We next compare the psychodynamic, RFP-C theoretical approach with the behavioral theoretical approach we employ–Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT). This comparison includes (a) our suggestion of behavioral alternatives to Brooks et al.’s psychodynamic interpretations of Jack’s and Oliver’s therapeutic interactions; and (b) an alternative case formulation and treatment plan for Jack and Oliver if they were to be seen in PCIT therapy. Regarding the case formulations and the treatment plans, utilization of standard PCIT is illustrated with the case of Oliver. Because Jack presents with many symptoms of anxiety, an adaptation of PCIT (“CALM”) for young children with anxiety is also presented. We suggest that PCIT is able to produce large magnitude improvements that last over time in part due to the use of parents as change agents who employ treatment techniques in their everyday interactions with their children. In addition, PCIT relies on weekly direct coaching as the most potent method for teaching parents therapy skills. This is contrasted with RFP-C’s reliance on two hours per week of therapist child interactions and four total hours of parent education. We conclude with suggestions for incorporating a key feature of PCIT into RFP- C, which may enhance its potency and efficacy.

Reflections on Methods, Therapeutic Alliance, and Possibilities for Psychotherapy Integration in the RFP-C Cases of "Jack" and "Oliver"

The commentaries by Cirasola (2025) and Kigin and Hembree-Kigin (2025) on the comparison case study of a successful and unsuccessful treatment of Regulation-Focused Psychotherapy for Children (RFP-C; Brooks et al., 2025) explore ways to extend the depth and breadth of child psychotherapy research; highlight the importance of therapeutic alliance research; and offer alternative perspectives on the treatment of externalizing behaviors. Cirasola (2025) notes concepts regarding the importance of case selection in comparative case studies, the crucial role of interviewers when obtaining interview data, and offers suggestions about ways to enhance analysis of qualitative data. Kigin and Hembree-Kigin (2025) approach the case studies from a behavioral perspective, using Parent Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) as a framework for reconceptualizing the clinical material and emphasizing the importance of parents as agents of change in child psychotherapy outcomes. In our response we aim to, in essence, converse with these colleagues who have generously taken the time to read the original comparative case study and have shared their expertise with us.

Pragmatic performance, its relationship with symptom severity, and early clinical predictors of pragmatics in 5 ~ 6-year-old children with autism spectrum disorder

BackgroundPragmatic language refers to using spoken language to convey messages effectively across diverse social communication contexts. However, minimal longitudinal research has focused on defining early predictors of pragmatic development in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).MethodsIn the present study, 71 children with ASD and 38 age- and gender- matched 24- to 30-month-old typically developing (TD) children were enrolled. Social-communication, language, and parent‒child interaction measures were collected for the ASD group at baseline. Three years later, all subjects were assessed for pragmatic ability via the Chinese version of the Language Use Inventory (LUI-Mandarin). First, the differences in pragmatic performance between the ASD and TD groups at follow-up were analyzed. Second, pragmatic performance was correlated with autism symptomatology at follow-up, as well as the structural language difficulties and joint engagement (JE) levels at baseline in the ASD group. Furthermore, hierarchical multiple regression analyses and machine learning techniques were performed to explore the effects of early potential predictors of pragmatic development in the ASD group.ResultsFirst, our results revealed that performance was significantly lower in the ASD than in the TD group with respect to the LUI-Mandarin total scores and subscale scores (except for subscale C). Second, correlation analysis revealed that more severe symptoms of ASD at follow-up were associated with lower LUI-Mandarin total scores and better language performance on the Gesell Developmental Schedules (GDS). Additionally, increased proportions of supported JE (SJE) states were associated with higher LUI-Mandarin total scores. In contrast, increased proportions of unengaged (UE) states were associated with lower LUI-Mandarin total scores in the ASD group. Third, hierarchical multiple regression analyses and machine learning techniques indicated that the proportions of SJE during parent‒child interactions, as well as the degree of social symptoms and structural language impairments, were significant contributors to pragmatic development for the ASD group in the prediction models.ConclusionIn summary, our findings suggest that pragmatic language difficulties are present in children with ASD as early as preschool age. Additionally, given the close correlation between the LUI-Mandarin score and symptom severity on the ADOS/ADI-R, the LUI-Mandarin might be a good way to triage children who need to wait a long time for a more extensive evaluation. Furthermore, this study provides new insights into potential targets for pragmatic interventions, and interventions can be designed to promote SJE between caregivers and children in future work.

Building an Inclusive Education for Autistic Children

This study aims to find out inclusive education in schools, especially for schools that are not designated as inclusive schools but there is cooperation with teachers or schools and the government's attention to services for children with disabilities, especially for autistic children to improve communication, social interaction of autistic children with the environment at school. The type of research used is qualitative descriptive with the type of case study research. The subjects in this study are teachers who teach and children with autism who attend inclusive schools, precisely at ABBAKIDS Elementary School, Cipondoh Tangerang. The results of the study show that an inclusive educational environment must be supported by collaboration between parents, teachers, the school environment and also the role of the government that can support and be able to provide a sense of affection, understanding, empathy, and patience in communicating with children with autism. This is done as an effort to increase the sense of confidence and desire to blend in with children with autism with the surrounding environment.

Early parent-child interaction and home environments of children exposed prenatally to opioids: A comparison of biological mothers and out-of-home caregivers.

Children born to mothers with opioid use disorder (OUD) are at increased risk of maltreatment and out-of-home care (OOHC) placement. This study examines the parent-child interaction quality and home environments of 92 New Zealand children with prenatal opioid exposure (OE) and 106 non-opioid-exposed (NE) children. Experiences for those in maternal care versus OOHC were of particular interest. Biological mothers completed a lifestyle interview during late pregnancy/at birth. At 18 months, parent-child interaction observations, maternal/primary caregiver interviews, and the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment were completed during a home visit. At age 4.5, children underwent developmental assessment. By 18 months, 20% of OE children were in OOHC. Mothers with OUD who were younger, less cooperative, and had increased polysubstance use during pregnancy were more likely to have lost custody of their child. OE children in their mother's care experienced less positive parenting and lower-quality home environments than NE children. OE children in OOHC had similarly resourced environments to NE children, yet experienced lower levels of parental warmth and responsiveness. Early parenting predicted child cognition, language, and behavior 3 years later, underscoring the critical importance of supporting the parenting and psychosocial needs of OE children's parents/caregivers to improve long-term outcomes.

유아교사의 교수창의성이 유아또래놀이상호작용에 미치는 영향에서 놀이중심교육과정 실천역량의 매개효과

Objectives The purpose of this study is to analyze the mediating effect of play-centered curriculum implementation competency when the teaching creativity of early childhood teachers influences the interaction between children and peers in play. Methods A survey was conducted on 73 early childhood teachers and 356 male and female children in S City, G Province, and K City to identify the early childhood teacher variables that affect the peer play interaction of young children. The collected data were analyzed using structural equation modeling with PASW 24.0 and AMOS 18.0. Results As a result of confirming the results according to the research questions, first, there was a significant positive correlation between the teaching creativity of early childhood teachers, the play-centered curriculum implementation competency of early childhood teachers, and the peer play interaction of young children. Second, the mediating effect of the play-centered curriculum implementation competency of early childhood teachers in the relationship between the teaching creativity of early childhood teachers and the peer play interaction of young children was confirmed to be significant. Conclusions The influence of the play-centered curriculum implementation competency of early childhood teachers, which is a variable affecting the peer play interaction of young children, increases further when the teaching creativity of early childhood teachers is maintained at a high level, suggesting that a teacher education program that can raise the level of both teaching creativity and the play-centered curriculum implementation competency is needed.

Maternal characteristics and their relation to early mother-child interaction and cognitive development in toddlers.

Early mother-infant interaction is believed to have a significant impact on the social, cognitive, and emotional development of children. These interactions are not only influenced by child and contextual factors but also by the mother's personality traits and strain. In this study, we investigated the relation between maternal factors such as personality, depressive symptoms, or experiencing of emotions, and (i) children's early cognitive development and (ii) interaction patterns in a sample of 116 mother-child dyads (mean child age = 18.63 months ± 6.42). Maternal factors were assessed using standardized questionnaires and toddlers' cognitive development was measured using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development. Interaction patterns were evaluated using the CARE-Index. The study found that children of mothers who scored higher in agreeableness, a personality trait reflecting compassion and cooperation, performed better in cognitive assessments. Additionally, mothers who placed significant importance on their bodily signals to assess their overall well-being had higher scores in the quality of interaction with their child. Statistical trends suggested that mothers with higher levels of conscientiousness, indicative of being organized and responsible, tended to be more responsive in the interaction with their infants, while those with higher levels of neuroticism, characterized by a tendency towards negative emotions, were more likely to have toddlers who inhibit their true negative affect. Finally, there was a trend indicating that maternal depression was associated with increased maternal controlling behavior towards toddlers. Overall, these findings show the intricate relation between maternal behavior and state with dyadic interaction quality. This should underline that optimal infant development is only possible if mothers are well supported especially if in need due to various burdens such as depressive symptoms.

Enhancing Dual Language Development in Preschool Programs: A Focus on Intentional Language Instruction and Adult–Child Interactions

Enhancing Dual Language Development in Preschool Programs: A Focus on Intentional Language Instruction and Adult–Child Interactions

Parent–Child Online Interaction and the Well‐Being of Children in Rural China: The Effects of Family Social Capital and Parental Migration

ABSTRACTExisting empirical evidence supports the close relationships between parent–child interactions and child well‐being outcomes. Internet and mobile phone–mediated communication has facilitated interaction between children and their family members, which can be related to increased family social capital for the welfare of children. The objectives of the present study were to examine the associations between parental–child online interactions, family social capital and child well‐being in rural China and to investigate the moderating role of parental migration in these associations. A sample of 1384 secondary school students (47.6% girls, mean age = 14.14 years) participated in the survey and answered questions about their interaction with parents, family structure and relationships and well‐being. A series of regression analyses showed that parent–child online interactions were positively associated with child well‐being by increasing children's family social capital at three parental migration patterns. Furthermore, there is no significant difference in the moderating mediating effect between non–left‐behind children and children whose one parent migrated. The findings provide evidence for the potential beneficial effects of parent–child online interactions on child well‐being and have implications for policies and practices that support the use of the Internet and mobile devices among children living in disadvantaged situations.

The dynamics of initiation in caregiver-child conversational interactions.

We investigated the dynamics of communicative initiation in infant-caregiver interactions across ages and language abilities. Analyses of 228 Language ENvironment Analysis (LENA) recordings from 141 Korean adult-child dyads (60 girls; aged 7-30 months) replicated the initiator effect reported in North American populations. This effect, demonstrated by longer utterances, more frequent speech, and shorter response times in self-initiated interactions for both children and adults, suggests potential cross-cultural consistency in this conversational dynamic and remained consistent across ages in most conversational measures. A focused analysis of 13-14 month-olds (N = 40) and their K-CDI scores revealed that the initiator effect in segment duration and number persisted across most vocabulary percentiles. Additionally, nuanced findings indicated that caregivers increased their input frequency and adjusted segment duration in adult-initiated conversations in tandem with children's higher receptive abilities. The robustness of the initiator role across cultures, ages, and vocabulary abilities points to a fundamental aspect of human communication.

An Evaluation of LENA Start™ Using Measures Derived from Parent–Child Interactions

Abstract It is important to assess learning in both familiar and unfamiliar conditions to determine the extent of learning generalisation. In this study, we evaluated parent language outcomes of LENA Start™, a parent-implemented intervention, using distal measures derived from a parent–child free play interaction. Forty-four parents and their child (mean: 20.8 months) participated in LENA Start™ or early childhood education curriculum intervention, in either English (n = 34) or Spanish (n = 10). We completed between- and within-group analyses using language and communication behaviour measures derived from parent–child interactions elicited outside the home with researcher-supplied materials (i.e., distal measures). Group comparisons revealed significant differences on a subset of behavioural measures. Spanish-speaking parents in the LENA Start™ group demonstrated significant gains on three measures. While LENA Start™ has been associated with parent gains on proximal language measures, the results of this study reveal limited generalisation of skills based on distal measures.