Children's Food Intake Research Articles

The Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (FITS) 2016: Study Design and Methods

BackgroundDiet and feeding patterns during the infant, toddler, and preschool years affect nutrient adequacy or excess during critical developmental periods. Understanding food consumption, feeding practices, and nutrient adequacy or excess during these periods is essential to establishing appropriate recommendations aimed at instilling healthy eating behaviors in children.ObjectiveThe objective of the 2016 Feeding Infants and Toddlers Study (FITS 2016) was to update our knowledge on the diets and feeding patterns of young children and to provide new data in related areas such as feeding behaviors, sleep, physical activity, and screen use. This article describes the study design, data collection methods, 24-h dietary recall (24-h recall) protocol, and sample characteristics of FITS 2016.MethodsFITS 2016 is a cross-sectional study of caregivers of children aged <4 y living in the 50 states and Washington, DC. Data collection occurred between June 2015 and May 2016. A recruitment interview (respondent and child characteristics, feeding practices, physical activity, screen use, and sleep habits) was completed by telephone or online. This was followed by a feeding practices questionnaire and the 24-h recall conducted by telephone. A second 24-h recall was collected for a random subsample of 25% of the total sampled population.ResultsAmong the 4830 recruited households with an age-eligible child, 3248 (67%) completed the 24-h recall. The respondents were more likely to be white, less likely to be Hispanic, and more highly educated than the US population of adults in households with a child <4 y of age. The sample was subsequently calibrated and weighted, and the distribution of respondents was compared with known population distributions.ConclusionsFITS 2016 provides data based on sound methods that can inform researchers, policymakers, and practitioners about the food and nutrient intakes of young children. New findings may also be compared with previous FITS studies.

An investigation of maternal food intake and maternal food talk as predictors of child food intake

Though parental modeling is thought to play a critical role in promoting children's healthy eating, little research has examined maternal food intake and maternal food talk as independent predictors of children's food intake. The present study examines maternal food talk during a structured eating protocol, in which mothers and their children had the opportunity to eat a series of familiar and unfamiliar vegetables and desserts. Several aspects of maternal talk during the protocol were coded, including overall food talk, directives, pronoun use, and questions. This study analyzed the predictors of maternal food talk and whether maternal food talk and maternal food intake predicted children's food intake during the protocol. Higher maternal body mass index (BMI) predicted lower amounts of food talk, pronoun use, and questions. Higher child BMI z-scores predicted more first person pronouns and more wh-questions within maternal food talk. Mothers of older children used fewer directives, fewer second person pronouns, and fewer yes/no questions. However, maternal food talk (overall and specific types of food talk) did not predict children's food intake. Instead, the most robust predictor of children's food intake during this protocol was the amount of food that mothers ate while sitting with their children. These findings emphasize the importance of modeling healthy eating through action and have implications for designing interventions to provide parents with more effective tools to promote their children's healthy eating.

Effects Of An Educational, Nutritional And Recreational Camp Intervention In Health Parameters In Overweight Children

PURPOSE: To investigate the impact of a Health Educational Program for Children (HEPchild) composed by 5 days of Camp Kids (KIDS) and 12-weeks of follow-up (FOU) on the Physical Activity Level (PAL), Sedentary Behavior (SB), Anthropometric data and Food Intake (FI) in overweight children. METHODS: Twelve children attended the HEPchild program which consisted of pre assessments, KIDS and 12 weeks of FOU. The PAL, SB and FI were assessed throughout questionnaires. RESULTS: The anthropometric were reduced (p<0.05) after KIDS which was maintained at the 12 weeks of FOU. After the FOU, children increased (p<0.05) their mean level of physical activity by 344 METs/week. In addition 25% of the children became more active (>1500 and <3000METs/week) after FOU in comparison to pre KIDS. On the other hand, the amount of sedentary children (<600METs/week) decreased by 15% and the insufficiently active (600 at 1500METs per week) increased by 15%. The PAL leisure time increased significantly throughout the weekdays (26.0%) and the weekends (14.1%) after FOU comparing to pre KIDS. The SB showed a significant reduction in 177.14 and 41.43 minutes along the weekdays and the weekends respectively. Before KIDS, the consumption of sugars and candies were out of control (100% inadequate), and, after the intervention, 58.4% started to consume these foods in a balanced way. In addition, the body fat, triciptal and subscapular skinfolds, waist circumference and waist-to-height ratio decreased significantly after KIDS and the results maintained after FOU in comparison to pre KIDS. In addition, it was observed a significant reduction in body fat, triceps and subscapular skinfolds, waist circumference and waist-to-height ratio after KIDS which was maintained after FOU in comparison to pre KIDS. CONCLUSION: The HEPchild (5-days KIDS camp + 12 weeks of FOU) contributed to increase the PAL and to reduce the SB and anthropometric data in overweight children. Financial Support: CNPq, CAPES and FAP-DF.

Increased concentrations of serum nesfatin-1 levels in childhood with idiopathic chronic malnutrition

Background/aim: Nesfatin-1, an anorexigenic molecule, seems to play a role in appetite regulation and energy homeostasis. The goal of this study was to evaluate the relation of nesfatin-1 with anthropometric and metabolic (ghrelin, leptin) parameters in children with idiopathic chronic malnutrition. Materials and methods: The study included 37 underweight and 38 healthy children who were similar regarding age, sex, and pubertal status. Anthropometric and biochemical (nesfatin-1, ghrelin, and leptin levels) variables were assessed. Results: A total of 37 underweight subjects (mean age 10.5 ± 2.6 years) and 38 heathy subjects (mean age 10.3 ± 2.3 years) were recruited. Underweight children had significantly higher nesfatin-1 (2.76 ± 0.4 vs. 1.56 ± 0.7, P < 0.001) and lower leptin levels (2.21 ± 2.0 vs. 5.21 ± 2.4, P < 0.001) than those of the control subjects. Nesfatin-1 levels were significantly associated with only leptin levels, after adjusting for age and BMI (r = –0.371, P = 0.001). Conclusion: The present study is the first to evaluate nesfatin-1 levels in relation with anthropometric and metabolic parameters in children with chronic malnutrition, who were subsequently found to have significantly higher nesfatin-1 levels. Our study underlines that nesfatin-1 may play a role in the development of malnutrition by inhibiting food intake in children.

1.11-P27Food consumption and nutrient intake of children and adolescents with a Chinese migrant background in Germany

1.11-P27Food consumption and nutrient intake of children and adolescents with a Chinese migrant background in Germany

Food intake and food adequacy of rural school children in the age group of 7-9 years

A present study was carried out to assess the information regarding food intake and food adequacy of the school children (7-9 year) of the two villages viz., Alakhpura and Barsi in Bawani Khera blocks of Bhiwani district. A sample of 100 school children was randomly selected. Data on dietary intake was collected by 24 hour recall method and analysed for food intake which was calculated and compared with recommended dietary intake. It was observed that food stuff like pulses, milk and milk products, roots and tubers, green leafy vegetables, other vegetables, fruits, sugar and jaggery, and fats and oils were lower than RDI in respondent of both the villages. Adequacy of food intake revealed that the intake of roots and tubers, green leafy vegetables, other vegetables and fruits milk were inadequate (50% of RDI) among majority of school going children. The intake of pulses and fats and oils were marginally inadequate and milk and milk products were marginally adequate. On the other hand, most of the children were taking cereals and sugars adequately.

Dietary diversity and anthropometric status and failure among infants and young children in Sri Lanka.

We investigate the association between child dietary diversity and anthropometric status and failure in Sri Lanka while accounting for other child and household factors by employing multivariable logistic and linear regression analyses. Using a nationally representative survey of children ages 6 mo to 59 mo, child dietary diversity was based on the 24-h recall of a child's food intake across seven food groups. The minimum dietary diversity was a score of four or above. Anthropometric status (i.e., height for age (HAZ), weight for age, and weight for height z-scores) and failure (i.e., stunting, wasting, and underweight) were calculated. The prevalence of stunting, wasting, and underweight was 15%, 21%, and 26%, respectively. The prevalence of inadequate dietary diversity was 9%. Child dietary diversity was positively associated with HAZ (b = 0.02; standard error = 0.01; P = 0.04) but not with any indicator of anthropometric failure. However, low birth weight, wealth, and location were strong risk factors for anthropometric status and failure. Analyses stratified by child age indicated that dietary diversity was positively associated with anthropometric status for children ages 24 mo to 59 mo (HAZ: b = 0.03; standard error = 0.01; P = 0.02). Mixed associations were found for children ages 6 mo to 12 mo and there were no associations for children ages 12 mo to 24 mo. Child dietary diversity predicted anthropometric status among children ages ≥24 mo. Interventions to address both proximal and distal risk factors for anthropometric status may be necessary in Sri Lanka to reduce anthropometric failure among infants and young children.

Dietary status and nutrient intake of children with autism spectrum disorder: A case-control study

BackgroundParents and caregivers of children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) often report that their children are picky or problem eaters. Additionally, it has been reported that children with ASD often experience gastrointestinal problems such as constipation, diarrhea, flatulence, cramping, bloating, and pain. These factors raise concerns for the nutritional status of children with ASD, given that refusal to consume particular foods coupled with the inability to tolerate, digest, and/or absorb these foods can compromise overall nutritional status. MethodThis case-control study investigated dietary intake of 86 children with ASD aged 2–8 years and 57 age-matched peers without ASD. Caregivers of participants who met inclusion criteria completed a health history questionnaire, provided information on dietary intake and feeding behavior, and completed a nutrition physical. ResultsThe majority of participants (both with and without ASD) met or exceeded macronutrient intake recommendations and dietary percentages for total energy, protein, carbohydrate, and fat consumption. Approximately 25% of participants consumed an inadequate or borderline amount of total calories per day based on Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) guidelines created by US Institute of Medicine (IOM). The majority of participants consumed inadequate amounts of vitamins A, D, E, folic acid and calcium. Furthermore, children with ASD consumed lower levels of protein and calcium, and were deficient in a number of B vitamins, including B1, B2, B3, B6, and folate, compared to similarly-aged children without ASD. ConclusionGiven the impact of nutrition on growth and health status, a formal dietary assessment for all children with ASD is recommended.

A qualitative investigation of how mothers from low income households perceive their role during family meals

BackgroundHaving regular family meals has been shown to be protective for child dietary intake (e.g., higher intake of fruit and vegetables). Mothers appear to be most responsible for preparing family meals. Therefore, understanding how mothers perceive their roles around family meals may help identify ways in which to help more families have regular family meals. MethodsUnited States mothers (n = 83) from the Twin Cities, Minnesota were interviewed during an in-home visit. Researchers trained in qualitative interviewing used a semi-structured approach and asked questions regarding the mothers' overall perception of their role during family meals. Interviews were coded using a mixed deductive and inductive content analysis approach. The majority of mothers were from minority and low-income households. ResultsMothers described their roles during family meals as the follows: 1) Helping children make healthy choices at family meals; 2) Making the meal happen; 3) Monitoring children's food intake; 4) Managing behavior at the family meal; 5) Making the family meal atmosphere enjoyable; and 6) Facilitating conversation/communication. Two secondary research questions also emerged about the specifics of the mothers' perception of her role at family meals (i.e., How do mothers deal with fighting or arguing if it occurs at family meals? and What do mothers talk about with children at family meals?) ConclusionsResults show that mothers have a large and varied role during family meals. Additionally, they are willing to put effort into family meals and want them to be enjoyable. Findings also suggest that mothers can be supported by encouraging fuller family participation in family meals and by offering mothers quality nutrition and parent feeding practice information.

Allergies in children due to early food consumption in Barranquilla, Colombia

To determine the prevalence of symptoms associated with asthma, rhinitis and eczema with food intake in children under six years of age. Descriptive study on the prevalence of asthma, rhinitis and eczema and their correlation with food consumption. Information was obtained from 1 520 schoolchildren of the District of Barranquilla and its metropolitan area. The ISSAC method was used to process the information, which was provided by the child's guardian, using the software SPSS version 24. Only duly completed questionnaires with informed consents were considered. Analysis was made using a chi-squared test, with a significant P value and 95% confidence. In the 1 520 children surveyed, the type of food related to allergies was fish, associated with asthma, showing that this may be a protective factor for the population regarding the onset of eczema, with a statistically a P value of <0.05, chi-square of 4.566, and CI of 95% [0.3;0.8]. The analyzed foods showed that fish is related and associated as a protective factor for eczema, while the consumption of cow's milk was related as a protective factor for rhinitis. Regarding other foods and allergies, the study is not conclusive as to whether their early intake is a predisposing factor or trigger in children.

HUBUNGAN POLA MAKAN DAN AKTIFITAS FISIK TERHADAP STATUS GIZI DI SISWA SMP AL-AZHAR PONTIANAK

Nutritional problem is one public health problem that has not been fully addressed in the world. Combating the problem of malnutrition is not resolved nutritional problems arise, namely the rise in the incidence of obesity and chronic disease so that nutritional problems become more complex. Results RISKESDAS (Riset Kesehatan Dasar) in 2013 showed the prevalence of underweight 12.7% and 21.5% overweight for West Kalimantan, Pontianak prevalence at 5.2% fat and very wasted 4.8%.The purpose of this study to determine the relationship of diet and physical activity on the nutritional status of junior high school students of Al-Azhar Pontianak.This study was an observational study with cross sectional approach. The data collection being done with anthropometric measure to determine the nutritional status of students and using dietary questionnaires to determine the students’ diets and physical activity questionnaires to determine physical activity in students.The results showed by nutritional status category with greater fat found in students with sufficient diet that is equal (19.4%). While students with greater nutritional status wasted contained in students with eating less is equal (20.8%). From the findings, it seemed that students with greater nutritional status found in students with mild activity (35.0%). While students with less nutritional status is also greater in students with mild activity (10.0%). Research shows there is a relationship between diet (p = 0.016), physical activity (p = 0.021) on nutritional status in junior high school students of Al-Azhar Pontianak. The need for attention from parents to help control food intake of children so that children are not consuming excessive amounts of food can affect the nutritional status and Encourage students to undertake enough physical activity to prevent obesity.

Children's self-regulation of eating provides no defense against television and online food marketing

Exposure to unhealthy food marketing stimulates children's food consumption. A child's responsiveness is influenced by individual factors, resulting in an increased vulnerability to advertising effects among some children. Whether these differential responses may be altered by different parental feeding behaviours is unclear. The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between parental feeding practices and children's food intake responses to food advertising exposure. A randomised, crossover, counterbalanced, within subject trial was conducted across four, six-day holiday camps in New South Wales, Australia between April 2016 and January 2017 with 160 children (7–12 years, n = 40/camp). Children were randomised to either a multiple media (TV and Internet) or single media (TV) condition and exposed to food (3 days) and non-food (3 days) advertising in an online game and/or a cartoon. Children's food consumption (kilojoules (kJ)) was measured at a snack immediately after advertising exposure and then at lunch later in the day. Parents completed the Child Feeding Questionnaire, and ‘restriction’ and ‘pressure to eat’ subscale scores were calculated. While food advertising affected all children in the multiple media condition, there was an increased effect on snack intake among children whose parents reported pressuring them to eat, with children consuming an additional 356 kJ after food advertising compared with non-food advertising. This was 209 kJ more than children whose parents did not pressure them to eat. In the single media condition, only children whose parents reported restrictive feeding practices ate more at lunch on food advertising days than non-food advertising days (240 kJ). These data highlight an increased susceptibility to food advertising among children whose parents report controlling feeding practices.

Imbalance of dietary nutrients and the associated differentially expressed genes and pathways may play important roles in juvenile Kashin-Beck disease

BackgroundKashin-Beck disease (KBD) is a childhood-onset endemic osteoarthropathy in China. Nutrients including trace elements may play active roles in the development of KBD. ObjectiveThis study aimed to estimate the nutrient intakes of children in endemic areas and to identify the imbalanced nutrients associated differentially expressed genes in the juvenile patients with KBD. MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, a consecutive 3 day 24 h semi-quantitative dietary retrospect questionnaire was conducted to estimate the daily nutrient intakes of children using CDGSS 3.0 software. Gene profile analysis was employed to identify differentially expressed genes in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of children with KBD. GOC, CTD, KEGG, and REACTOME databases were used to establish the relationship between nutrients and nutrients-associated differentially expressed genes and pathways. Statistical analyses were accomplished by SPSS 18.0 software. ResultsDaily Se intakes without supplementation of children were significantly lower in Se-supplemented (Se + ) KBD areas (29.3 ∼ 29.6 mg/d) and non-endemic area (27.8 ± 7.9 mg/d) compared to non-Se-supplemented (Se-) KBD area (32.9 ± 7.9 mg/d, c2 = 20.24, P < .01). Children in Se+ KBD areas were suffering more serious insufficient intake of multiple nutrients, including vitamins-B2/-C/-E, Ca, Fe, Zn and I. Gene profile analysis combined with bioinformatics technique identified 34 nutrients associated differentially expressed genes and 10 significant pathways which are related to the pathological changes in juvenile KBD. ConclusionsImbalance of dietary nutrients and nutrients-associated differentially expressed genes and pathways may play important roles in the development of juvenile KBD.

Clinical effects of crude fiber food intake in children with different types of dyspepsia

Clinical effects of crude fiber food intake in children with different types of dyspepsia

Evaluation of association of DRD2 TaqIA and -141C InsDel polymorphisms with food intake and anthropometric data in children at the first stages of development.

The reward sensation after food intake may be different between individuals and variants in genes related to the dopaminergic system may indicate a different response in people exposed to the same environmental factors. This study investigated the association of TaqIA (rs1800497) and -141C InsDel (rs1799732) variants in DRD2/ANKK1 gene with food intake and adiposity parameters in a cohort of children. The sample consisted of 270 children followed until 7 to 8 years old. DNA was extracted from blood and polymorphisms were detected by PCR-RFLP analysis. Food intake and nutritional status were compared among individuals with different SNP genotypes. Children carrying the A1 allele (TaqIA) had higher energy of lipid dense foods (LDF) when compared with A2/A2 homozygous children at 7 to 8 years old (GLM p=0.004; Mann Whitney p=0.005). No association was detected with -141C Ins/Del polymorphism. To our knowledge, this is the first association study of the DRD2 TaqIA and -141C Ins/Del polymorphism with food intake and anthropometric parameters in children. DRD2 TaqIA polymorphism has been associated with a reduction in D2 dopamine receptor availability. Therefore, the differences observed in LDF intake in our sample may occur as an effort to compensate the hypodopaminergic functioning.

Comparison of nutrients and food intakes of young children according to lunch places: based on the fifth Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

본 연구는 유아의 점심 식사장소에 따라 영양소와 식품섭취량에 차이가 있는지를 조사하였다. 제5기 (2010 ~ 2012년) 국민건강영양조사 원시자료를 이용하여 개인별 24시간 회상에 의한 식품섭취조사 항목 중에서 점심 식사장소가 유아원/유치원일 경우 보육기관 점심식사군으로, 점심 식사장소가 가정과 이웃집/친척집일 경우 가정 점심 식사군으로 나누어 복합표본설계 요소를 반영한 통계분석을 실시하였다. 대상자수는 1 ~ 2세에서 보육기관 점심식사군 179명, 가정 점심식사군 367명이었고, 3 ~ 5세에서 보육기관 점심식사군 549명, 가정 점심식사군 225명이었다. 연령군별 하루 총에너지섭취량, 점심과 저녁 식사로부터 에너지 섭취량은 두 집단 간 차이가 없었으나, 아침 에너지섭취비율이 보육기관 점심식사군에서 낮은 반면에 간식 에너지섭취비율은 더 높았다. 3 ~ 5세 유아에서는 나트륨, 칼륨 및 비타민 C 섭취량이 보육기관 점심식사군에서 많았으며, 리보플라빈 섭취량은 가정 점심식사군에서 유의하게 많았다. 점심으로부터 섭취한 식품군을 비교한 결과 1 ~ 2세 보육기관 점심식사군에서 채소류 섭취량이 유의하게 많은 반면에 과일류, 난류, 우유류 섭취량은 가정 점심식사군에서 많았다. 3 ~ 5세 보육기관 점심식사군의 점심으로부터 채소류, 두류, 어패류 섭취량이 유의하게 많은 반면에 우유류 섭취량은 가정 점심식사군에서 많았다. 3 ~ 5세 유아들이 보육기관 점심으로부터 채소류, 두류, 어패류를 더 많이 섭취하고 칼륨과 비타민 C를 많이 섭취하여 보육기관 점심이 영양소 균형과 식품 다양성 측면에서 가정 점심보다 나은 것으로 판단된다. 결론적으로 유아의 성장 발육을 위한 적절한 영양 공급은 물론, 올바른 식습관 형성을 위해서 보육기관 급식은 물론, 가정 식사에서도 채소류, 생선류 등 다양한 식재료를 활용하는 노력이 요구된다.

Quality of Water and the Recovery Time of Malnourished Children Enrolled In a Nutritional Feeding Programme: Lessons from Parkishon Region, Marsabit County, Kenya

Objective: Malnutrition is a problem that continues to plague children from resource scarce regions of Kenya. To address this health challenge, the government of Kenya initiated feeding programmes aimed at improving the daily nutritional food intake of underweight and sickly children from these regions. This study examined the relationship between the quality of water and the children’s recovery as measured by the Mid-Upper Arm Circumference (MUAC) in Parkishon region of Kenya.

The effects of interrupting prolonged sitting with intermittent activity on appetite sensations and subsequent food intake in preadolescent children.

BackgroundShort-term and long-term exposure to prolonged sitting is associated with excess food intake and weight gain in children. Interrupting prolonged sitting with low-intensity activity has been shown to not alter hunger, satiety, or food consumption in children, however it is unclear whether interrupting sitting with high-intensity activity will alter appetite regulation in children.PurposeThe purpose of this study was to examine the acute effects of interrupting prolonged sitting with intermittent activity performed at varying intensities on hunger, satiety, prospective food consumption (PFC), and food intake in preadolescent children.MethodsThirty-nine children (ages 7–11 years, 54% female, 33% overweight/obese) completed four experimental conditions in random order: 8 hours of sitting interrupted with 20, 2-minute low-, moderate-, or high-intensity activity breaks or 20, 2-minute sedentary screen time breaks. Exercise intensity corresponded with 25%, 50% and 75% of heart rate reserve, respectively. Hunger, satiety, and PFC were assessed using the Visual Analog Scale, at five time points (pre- and post-breakfast, pre- and post-lunch, and pre-dinner) during each experimental condition. Dietary compensation was assessed as total caloric intake during a post-condition dinner standardized to provide 70% of estimated daily energy requirements.ResultsThere was a significant effect of time on hunger, satiety, and PFC throughout each condition day (p< 0.001). There were no differences across conditions for hunger (sedentary: 4.9±0.3 cm, low: 5.0±0.3 cm, moderate: 5.1±0.3 cm, high: 5.1±0.3 cm, p>0.05), satiety (sedentary: 4.7±0.3 cm, low: 4.4±0.3 cm, moderate: 4.6±0.3 cm, high: 4.2±0.3 cm, p>0.05), and PFC (sedentary: 4.9±0.3 cm, low: 4.7±0.3 cm, moderate: 4.9±0.3 cm, high: 5.0±0.3 cm, p>0.05). There were no significant differences in post-activity food intake across conditions (sedentary: 1071.9±53.6 kcals; low: 1092.6±43.4kcals; moderate: 996.2±54.6kcals; high: 1138.7±62.8kcals, p>0.05). However, there was a significant effect of condition on energy balance (sedentary: +61.4±65.9 kcals, low: +74.9±57.6 kcals, moderate: -58.3±62.8 kcals, high: -391.2±77.9 kcals; p<0.001). There were no significant effects of weight status on hunger, satiety, PFC, post-activity food intake, and mean energy balance across conditions (all p’s>0.05).ConclusionsInterrupting prolonged sitting with physical activity of any intensity does not alter appetite sensations and subsequent food consumption in children. These data suggest that interventions targeting prolonged sitting with high-intensity intermittent activity may be an effective strategy to increase physical activity energy expenditure without increasing food intake, allowing for a short-term energy deficit in both healthy weight and overweight/obese children. Future studies should examine the long-term effects of interrupting prolonged sitting with activity on food consumption and weight status in preadolescent children.

Parental feeding practices to manage snack food intake: Associations with energy intake regulation in young children

BackgroundLittle attention has been directed to understanding the relationship between restriction and regulation of snack food intake in toddlers. ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to examine the effects of parental restriction of toddlers' eating of snacks in the absence of hunger (EAH) and to examine the impact of three contextual factors; snack food access, frequency of snack food consumption, and attraction to snack food. Design64 parents and toddlers (aged 22–36 months) took part in a protocol to measure EAH (defined as kJ of energy-dense snack foods consumed). Mean EAH was 199 kJ (SD = 299), with 43 children consuming at least some snacks. Restriction was measured with the Child Feeding Questionnaire Restriction subscale. Snack food access was measured with Allow Access from the Toddler Snack Food Feeding Questionnaire (TSFFQ), snack food consumption was measured with a short snack food frequency questionnaire, and attraction to snack foods was measured with Child's Attraction from the TSFFQ. Moderated regression analyses tested interactions between Restriction and contextual factors in predicting EAH. ResultsEAH was associated with Restriction (r = 0.25, p = .05, 95% CI 0.004 - 0.47). There was an interaction between Restriction and accessibility of snack foods (R2 change = 0.08, p = .025); restriction was associated with EAH only when access to snack foods in the home was, on average, higher. The effect of Restriction on EAH was not moderated by frequency of snack food consumption or Child's Attraction. ConclusionsThese finding have practical relevance and reinforce the importance of the home food environment for managing young children's snack food intake.

Mothers of Obese Children Use More Direct Imperatives to Restrict Eating

ObjectiveTo examine the association of mother and child characteristics with use of direct imperatives to restrict eating. MethodsA total of 237 mother–child dyads (mean child age, 70.9 months) participated in a video-recorded, laboratory-standardized eating protocol with 2 large portions of cupcakes. Videos were reliably coded for counts of maternal direct imperatives to restrict children's eating. Anthropometrics were measured. Regression models tested the association of participant characteristics with counts of direct imperatives. ResultsChild obese weight status and maternal white non-Hispanic race/ethnicity were associated with greater levels of direct imperatives to restrict eating (p = .0001 and .0004, respectively). Conclusions and ImplicationsMothers of obese children may be using more direct imperatives to restrict eating so as to achieve behavioral compliance to decrease their child's food intake. Future work should consider the effects direct imperatives have on children's short- and long-term eating behaviors and weight gain trajectories.