Children's Academic Achievement Research Articles

Hubungan Perhatian Orang Tua Terhadap Hasil Belajar Siswa Kelas IV Sekolah Dasar

In education, the attention of parents is one factor that is very important and influences the education of their children. However, many parents underestimate their children's education. There are still many students who do not get enough attention from their parents in their studies. This is one of the factors in children's academic achievement that is not optimal. To improve learning outcomes, students must be motivated both internally and externally. This study discusses the problem of how the relationship between parental attention and student learning outcomes in grade IV elementary school. This type of research is qualitative with a descriptive approach. The source of the research material is the parents of elementary school students and their academic results. Observations, questionnaires and interviews were used as methods in data collection. The results showed that 15 students with a percentage of 71.42% received parental attention in the very good category, 4 students with a percentage of 19.04% in the good category, and 2 students with a percentage of 9.52% in the category of little parental attention. The average student learning outcomes in the very good category were achieved by 13 students with a percentage of 61.90%, in the good category were 6 students with a percentage of 28.57%, the less and less good categories each received 1 student with a percentage of 4.76%. . Thus, parental attention has a relationship with student academic results.

Understanding Heterogeneity in the Impact of Public Preschool Programs.

We examine the North Carolina Pre-K (NC Pre-K) program to test the hypothesis that observed variation in effects resulting from exposure to the program can be attributed to interactions with other environmental factors that occur before, during, or after the pre-k year. We examine student outcomes in 5th grade and test interaction effects between NC's level of investment in public pre-k and moderating factors. Our main sample includes the population of children born in North Carolina between 1987 and 2005 who later attended a public school in that state, had valid achievement data in 5th grade, and could be matched by administrative record review (n = 1,207,576; 58% White non-Hispanic, 29% Black non-Hispanic, 7% Hispanic, 6% multiracial and Other race/ethnicity). Analyses were based on a natural experiment leveraging variation in county-level funding for NC Pre-K across NC counties during each of the years the state scaled up the program. Exposure to NC Pre-K funding was defined as the per-4-year-old-child state allocation of funds to a county in a year. Regression models included child-level and county-level covariates and county and year fixed effects. Estimates indicate that a child's exposure to higher NC Pre-K funding was positively associated with that child's academic achievement 6 years later. We found no effect on special education placement or grade retention. NC Pre-K funding effects on achievement were positive for all subgroups tested, and statistically significant for most. However, they were larger for children exposed to more disadvantaged environments either before or after the pre-k experience, consistent with a compensatory model where pre-k provides a buffer against the adverse effects of prior negative environmental experiences and protection against the effects of future adverse experiences. In addition, the effect of NC Pre-K funding on achievement remained positive across most environments, supporting an additive effects model. In contrast, few findings supported a dynamic complementarity model. Instrumental variables analyses incorporating a child's NC Pre-K enrollment status indicate that program attendance increased average 5th grade achievement by approximately 20% of a standard deviation, and impacts were largest for children who were Hispanic or whose mothers had less than a high school education. Implications for the future of pre-k scale-up and developmental theory are discussed.

Family assets and their influence over children’s academic achievement: an empirical study based on China’s micro-data

ABSTRACT Children's academic accomplishment is a priority for parents as they want to provide an excellent educational foundation for their future growth personally as well as professionally. This makes it imperative to investigate the impact of economic factors on children's academic achievement in the Chinese setting. This study utilises China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) data on children aged below 15 years to highlight the impact of several factors on students’ academic achievements in several areas including types of financial holdings, number of family members and siblings, years of schooling, academic discipline, and family income & assets. Three primary insights emerged from our investigation (1) family income and family assets both positively impact children's academic achievement, and family assets mitigate the effect of family income on children's academic achievement; (2) such family assets owned by children as educational savings devoted to children's development have more significant positive impacts on children's academic achievement; and (3) the impact of family assets on children's academic achievement exhibits a threshold effect, implying family assets have a threshold effect. These findings urge initiatives in China to increase children's educational equality for all income levels.

Negative Effects of Poverty on the Academic Achievement among Children with Special Needs in the Philippines: A Meta-Synthesis

Abstract: This study presented a meta-synthesis on the negative effects of poverty on academic achievement among children with special needs in the Philippines. It utilized 15 of the initial 400 studies from 2013–2021 that screened using the Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis. Constant comparison and the use of Clark and Braune’s six-step thematic analysis revealed seven themes: developmental delays; chronic stress; poor educational performance and attainment; disruptive behavior and attention deficits; lower expectations of the society; less involvement of the parents in children’s special needs education; dropping out of school. The negative effects of poverty on academic achievement among children with special needs in the Philippines emerged as the meta-theme of the study. Studies revealed that poverty significantly impacts children with disabilities in terms of development, academic achievement, and school attendance. As a result, it recommended that an intervention program, such as positive behavior intervention, student monitoring/higher student engagement, and parenting services, be provided to mitigate the effects of poverty on the academic achievement of children with disabilities.

The impact of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and specific learning disorders on academic performance in Spanish children from a low-middle- and a high-income population.

Past research has demonstrated that attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), specific learning disorders (SLD), and socioeconomic status (SES) affect a host of educational outcomes. However, there are no studies examining whether SES moderates the association between these neurodevelopmental disorders (ND) and the academic achievement of children and adolescents. The present investigation examined the impact of ADHD and SLD on academic performance in 1,287 Spanish students aged 5-17 from a low-middle (LM)- and a high-income population, when adjusted for comorbidity and demographic factors that may influence educational functioning. Parents completed a questionnaire regarding demographic data along with the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire. Additionally, teachers provided information on learning difficulties trough the Protocol for Detection and Management of Dyslexia. Teacher's Version. Academic performance across multiple domains (i.e., first language, foreign language, mathematics) was obtained from school records. ND were determined using standardized diagnostic methods based on the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders criteria. To examine the effects of ADHD and SLD on academic achievement and the potential moderating role of SES, a series of ordinal logistic regressions were conducted. Emotional/behavioral problems, learning difficulties, and ND were more frequent among individuals from the LM-income population. After controlling for gender, age, parental divorce/separation, grade retention, frequency of screen use, and daily meals, both ADHD and SLD were associated with worse educational outcomes. Lower SES also increased the risk for academic impairment, although the interactions with ADHD or SLD were not significant. These findings indicate that ADHD and SLD exert a pervasive impact on academic performance across different socioeconomic backgrounds. Therefore, early detection and effective intervention strategies aimed at students with these ND are crucial to improve their educational functioning and mitigate the negative consequences related to academic problems.

Lichen biomonitoring of seasonal outdoor air quality at schools in an industrial city in Thailand

Poor air quality in school environments causes adverse health effects in children and decreases their academic performance. The main objective of this study was to use lichens as a biomonitoring tool for assessing outdoor air quality at schools in the industrial area of Laem Chabang municipality in Thailand. Thalli of the lichen Parmotrema tinctorum were transplanted from an unpolluted area to nine schools in the industrial area and to a control site. The lichens were exposed for four periods in the dry, hot, early rainy, and late rainy seasons, for 90days each. The concentrations of 14 elements, including As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Ti, V, and Zn, were determined using inductively coupled plasma‒mass spectrometry (ICP‒MS), and 8 physiological parameters were measured. The concentrations of all 14 investigated elements were clearly higher at the schools than at the control site. The contamination factors (CFs) suggested that 9 out of the 14 elements, including As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mo, Pb, Sb, and Ti, heavily contaminated the school environments, especially Pb, the concentration of which was 3 to 11 times higher than at the control site. The most polluted time was the hot season as evidenced by the investigated elements, and the least polluted time was the late rainy season. The pollution load indices (PLIs) demonstrated that schools in the inner and middle zones clearly had higher pollution loads than the schools in the outer zone during the rainy seasons, while the hot and dry seasons showed similar pollution levels in all zones. The vitality indices (VIs) showed that the lower lichen vitalities at most schools were observed during the dry season and at the schools in the inner and middle zones. Accordingly, the air performance indices (APIs) revealed that poorer air quality at most schools was found during the dry season and at the schools in the inner and middle zones. This study clearly showed that the transplanted lichen P. tinctorum was an effective bioindicator of air quality in school environments. The results illustrated that all studied schools were contaminated by air pollutants; therefore, improving air quality at the schools is crucial and should be an urgent issue for maintaining good health and may benefit children's academic achievements and careers in the long run.

The influence of family stru cture on children's academic achievement: evidence from some selected secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria

Studies into the elements that influence students' academic progress have drawn the interest and concern of teachers, counsellors, psychologists, researchers, and school officials in Nigeria. The foundation of society is the family, which is generally understood as a couple raising their children or a group of individuals living under one roof and typically under one head. Every family is thought to want their children to do well in school. However, a lot of elements, such as economic pressure, lead families to lose interest in their children's academic endeavours. The study aimed to investigate the relationship between secondary school students' academic achievements and their family structure in Oyo State, Nigeria. A structured questionnaire was utilised for the study to collect data because it helped the researcher found to standardise data collection, categorise data for statistical analysis and collect data at a lower administrative cost. Descriptive and correlational approaches were also applied. Correlational design helps identify the relationship between two variables, while the descriptive design accurately describes the events as they actually occur. Therefore, it was possible to establish a connection between the type of family and the pupils' academic performance. One-way ANOVA was used as the statistical tool to analyse the data. This decision was taken after running the descriptive analysis of the dependent variables. According to the study's findings, family structure and their socioeconomic position, parenting, and upbringing affects pupils' academic achievements in secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria. Also, family structure affects parental support, class concentration, and the self-esteem of students. Additionally, there is a correlation between students' academic success in secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria and the family structure. The study findings indicate that the provision of basic needs (food, shelter, and clothing), mental wellbeing, adequate economic resources, harmony in the parents' relationship, and soundness of the parent-child relationship were significantly influencing the academic performance of students in secondary schools in Oyo State, Nigeria

Role limitations in mothers living with depression: Links with children's academic achievement

Maternal depression can limit the quality of parenting behaviors that foster child academic achievement. This effect may be explained by functional difficulties, also known as role limitations, that result from experiencing physical health issues (i.e., physical role limitations) and emotional health issues (i.e., emotional role limitations). Physical and emotional role limitations might be especially salient in low-income, urban mother-child dyads because of elevated levels of environmental stressors. We conducted mediation models with a sample of 133 low-income, urban, predominantly African American and Latino families. Our analyses indicated direct links between maternal depression and emotional and physical role limitations, as well as a direct link between maternal depression and child reading (but not math) abilities. Analyses suggested that maternal depression was indirectly linked with child reading abilities through emotional role limitations. This study can inform programs that nurture development in urban, minoritized children in the context of poverty and maternal depression.

Effect of Parents Involvement at Early Childhood Education in Government Schools of Peshawar

The cognitive, social, and emotional growth of children are all improved when their parents are actively concerned in their early education. The purpose of this research is to examine how parental participation influences children's academic and social-emotional growth in public preschools. Peshawar parents who sent their kids to public school were surveyed using a quantitative methodology that have a questionnaire. The results show that children's academic achievement and social-emotional development benefit from parents' participation in early childhood education. Families in Peshawar who have children enrolled in school are the subjects of the research. Participants were chosen using a convenience sampling method, and there were a total of 476 people in the study's sample. Researchers concluded that public schools should do more to involve parents in their children's early learning.

Influence of Family Structure on Student’s Academic Achievement in Secondary Schools in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria

This study focused on the influence of family structure on the academic achievement of students in secondary schools in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area, Rivers State, Nigeria. Specifically; single parent families and two parent families as well as academic achievement of senior secondary school students were the variables involved in the study. Two hundred and twenty students of the public secondary schools in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State, Nigeria were involved in the study. The Multidimensional Life Satisfaction Scale (MSLSS), which was designed by Suldo and Huebner (2006), was used to gather information from the students and it was conducted in a classroom environment during school period. After collecting information from the students, their scores in Mathematics and English Language (which are compulsory subjects in all secondary schools) of the second term of 2021/2022 academic session were obtained from their class teachers with the permission of the principals of the schools. The scores were then converted to Z-scores in order to ensure their reliability and validity since they were collected from different schools. Results show a significant difference in the academic achievement of students from single parent families and those from two parent families. In other words, the academic achievement of children from two parent families is better than those from single parent families. The implications of the findings were that parental separation should be avoided and religious leaders, counsellors as well as government must engage in enlightening parents about the importance of family structure on the life of children and in ensuring a well-ordered society. Keywords: Family Structure, Academic Achievement, Senior Secondary School, Obio/Akpor, Rivers State

Exploring Parental Pressure on Academic Performance among Adolescents

Adolescents experience many issues during development phases, such as career, academic struggle, mental health, and social skills. In addition, other aspects can impact the outcome of adolescents, such as parents, family, friends, and environment. Parenting style is one of the significant factors influencing adolescent academic performance. Therefore, how parents treat their children will determine their academic performance. This study aims to explore the parental pressure on academic achievement among adolescents. This study employed qualitative research through an in-depth interview. The instrument has three sections, each containing five questions in the protocol document to guide the data gathering. Next, purposeful sampling was utilized to recruit participants who could provide in-depth and detailed information about the phenomenon. Findings demonstrate that a supportive parenting style will improve adolescents' academic achievement. On the other hand, the authoritarian parenting style often puts high expectations on their children's academic achievement, which eventually causes stress for them. Therefore, parental involvement remains essential for positive youth development, especially in education, and should be more flexible in raising their children. Hence, parents must be aware of their children's academic or practical abilities. This will help students be more successful in their life because they do something they are interested in.

Association between adverse childhood experiences and sleep quality, emotional and behavioral problems and academic achievement of children and adolescents.

The impact of adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) on adult health has been extensively examined, but the association between ACEs and sleep, emotion, behavior and academic outcomes of children and adolescents is not well known. A total of 6363 primary and middle school students were included to examine the effect of ACEs on sleep quality, emotional and behavioral problems and academic achievement and further explore the mediation role of sleep quality and emotional and behavioral problems. Children and adolescents with ACE exposure had 1.37 times risk of poor sleep quality (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 1.37, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.21-1.55), 1.91 times risk of emotional and behavioral problems (adjusted OR = 1.91, 95%CI: 1.69-2.15) and 1.21 times risk of self-reported lower academic achievement (adjusted OR = 1.21, 95%CI: 1.08-1.36). Most types of ACEs were significantly associated with poor sleep quality, emotional and behavioral problems and lower academic achievement. There weredose-response relationships between cumulativeACEexposure andrisk of poor sleep quality, emotional and behavioral problems,and lower academic achievement. Sleep quality and emotional and behavioral performance mediated 45.9% of the effect of ACEs exposure on math scores and 15.2% of the effect of ACEs exposure on English scores. Early detection and prevention of ACEs among children and adolescents are urgent and essential, and targeted interventions for sleep and emotional and behavioral performance as well as early educational interventions are recommended for children with ACEs exposure.

Severe Malaria and Academic Achievement.

Cerebral malaria (CM) and severe malarial anemia (SMA) are associated with neurocognitive impairment in childhood but their effects on long-term academic achievement are not known. Ugandan children 5 to 12 years old who participated in a previous study evaluating cognitive outcomes after CM (n = 73) or SMA (n = 56), along with community children (CC, n = 100) from the same household or neighborhood, were on average enrolled 67.1 months (range, 19-101 months) after the severe malaria episode or previous study enrollment. Academic achievement in word reading, sentence comprehension, spelling, and math computation was evaluated using the Wide Range Achievement Test, Fourth Edition. Age-adjusted z-scores for academic achievement outcomes were calculated from CC scores. After adjustment for age and time from enrollment, reading scores were lower (mean difference from CC [95% confidence interval]) in children with CM (-0.15 [-0.27 to -0.03], P = .02) or SMA (-0.15 [-0.28 to -0.02], P = .02) than CC. Postdischarge malaria episodes were associated with worse spelling and reading scores in CM and worse spelling scores only in SMA. Pathway analysis showed that incidence of postdischarge uncomplicated malaria contributed significantly to the association of CM or SMA with poorer reading scores. Children with CM or SMA have poorer long-term reading skills. Postdischarge malaria episodes contribute significantly to this association. Postdischarge malaria chemoprevention should be assessed as an intervention to improve long-term academic achievement in children with severe malaria.

Effects of Parental Sign Language on Academic Achievements of Children with HI in Inclusive classroom

This study was aimed to find out the level of parental expertise in sign language and its role for academic achievements of children with HI (HI). The study was descriptive in nature. The participants of this study were 100 children with HI and their hearing parents. These children were studying at secondary and higher secondary schools which providing inclusive education.

Understanding the link between anxious parental overprotection and academic confidence in emerging adults: Mediation through interpersonal and intrapersonal processes

Some parents may engage in overparenting, often characterized as overprotection, to ensure their college student’s academic success, yet, findings show that such parental efforts undermine performance. In the present study, we propose that there are interpersonal (parental hostility) and intrapersonal factors (depression and self-regulation) that act as mechanisms through which anxious overprotective parenting leads to diminished emerging adult academic confidence. Emerging adults ( N = 967; 75.6% women; M age = 18.71, SD = .94) who were primarily in their first (60.5%) or second (35.7%) year of college completed measures of academic confidence (academic adjustment, academic efficacy, confidence in graduating), reports of mothers’ and fathers’ anxious overprotective parenting, perceptions of maternal and paternal hostility, depression, and self-regulation. Employing a double mediation structural equation model, results revealed that anxious maternal and paternal overprotective parenting operated through perceived parental hostility to intrapersonal processes (depression, self-regulation) in predicting academic confidence. Maternal and paternal hostility, in particular, was paramount as an interpersonal mediator through which overprotective parenting led to emerging adult intrapersonal and academic outcomes. Although cross-sectional, the current findings are suggestive of the developmental cascade model (Masten & Cicchetti, 2010), whereby diminished family dynamics are associated with internalizing symptoms and self-regulatory issues, which, in turn, are linked with lower academic achievement in children.

Entwined life events: The effect of parental incarceration timing on children's academic achievement

Parental incarceration has negative effects on children's educational outcomes. Past studies have only analyzed, and therefore only treated as consequential, parental incarceration that occurs during childhood rather than prenatally. Such analyses that emphasize the importance only of events that occur during one's lifetime are common in life course studies. This paper introduces an "entwined life events" perspective, which argues that certain events are so consequential to multiple persons' lives that they should be analyzed as events within multiple independent life courses; parental incarceration, whenever it occurs, is entwined across and shapes both parents' and children's lives. Drawing on data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, we find that parental incarceration, both prenatal and during childhood, significantly influences children's academic ability measures and years of completed schooling. Our results show heterogeneous effects by children's race. We find that the absolute magnitude of parental incarceration effect estimates is largest for White children relative to estimates for Black and Hispanic children. At the same time, outcome levels tend to be poorer for Black and Hispanic children with parental incarceration experience. We explain this racial heterogeneity as confounded by the many other social disadvantages that non-White children encounter, resulting in the individual effect of parental incarceration not being extremely disruptive to their academic growth.

Mediators of the association between childhood body mass index and educational attainment: Analysis of a UK prospective cohort study.

Higher body mass index (BMI) in childhood is associated with lower academic achievement. To explore potential pathways linking childhood BMI with educational attainment. Using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children prospective cohort study (N=6949), we assessed the association between BMI z-scores at 11.7 years and educational attainment at 16 (General Certificate of Secondary Education [GCSE] results). Depressive symptoms, externalizing behaviours, bullying and school enjoyment were considered as potential mediators. Mediators were examined individually and jointly using sequential causal mediation. Higher BMI z-scores were associated with lower GCSE scores (females β=-3.47 95% CI -5.54, -1.41 males β=-4.33 95% CI -6.73, -1.94). Together, bullying, externalizing symptoms, depressive symptoms and school enjoyment mediated 41.9% of this association in females, and 23.3% in males. In males, evidence for mediation was weak (confidence intervals for all indirect effects spanned the null). In both females and males, most of the mediation was driven by externalizing symptoms. The detrimental effect of higher BMI on educational attainment appears to be partly explained by externalizing behaviours, particularly in females. Interventions to support behavioural problems may help the academic achievement of children with a higher body weight.

Longitudinal association between executive function and academic achievement in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 and plexiform neurofibromas.

To examine how executive functioning (EF) relates to academic achievement longitudinally in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) and plexiform neurofibromas (PNs) and whether age at baseline moderates this relationship. Participants included 88 children with NF1 and PNs (ages 6-18 years old, M = 12.05, SD = 3.62, 50 males) enrolled in a natural history study. Neuropsychological assessments were administered three times over 6 years. EF (working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and attention) was assessed by performance-based (PB) and parent-reported (PR) measures. Multilevel growth modeling was used to examine how EF at baseline related to initial levels and changes in broad math, reading, and writing across time, controlling for demographic variables. The relationship between EF and academic achievement varied across EF and academic domains. Cognitive flexibility (PB) uniquely explained more variances in initial math, reading, and writing scores; working memory (PB) uniquely explained more variances in initial levels of reading and writing. The associations between EF and academic achievement tended to remain consistent across age groups with one exception: Lower initial levels of inhibitory control (PR) were related to a greater decline in reading scores. This pattern was more evident among younger (versus older) children. Findings emphasize the heterogeneous nature of academic development in NF1 and that EF skills could help explain the within-group variability in this population. Routine cognitive/academic monitoring via comprehensive assessments and early targeted treatments consisting of medication and/or systematic cognitive interventions are important to evaluate for improving academic performance in children with NF1 and PNs.

Parenting style and Chinese preschool children's pre-academic skills: A moderated mediation model of approaches to learning and family socioeconomic status.

This study examined the mediating role of children's approaches to learning (ATL) in parenting style and Chinese preschoolers' pre-academic skills (i.e., literacy and numeracy) as well as the moderating role of family socioeconomic status (SES) in the mediating process. Participants were 307 children aged five to six years old from four public kindergartens in Shanghai, China. Parents provided demographic information and reported their parenting style (i.e., authoritative, authoritarian, and permissive) and teachers rated each child's ATL and pre-academic skills. Results indicated that: (1) authoritative parenting positively related to children's pre-academic skills while no significant relationships were identified either for authoritarian or permissive parenting with pre-academic skills; (2) children's ATL partially mediated the relationship between authoritative parenting and children's pre-academic skills; (3) family SES moderated the relationship between children's ATL and pre-academic skills. Specifically, children's ATL was more strongly related to pre-academic skills for children from low SES families as compared to their high-SES peers. These findings contribute to the understanding of the effects of parenting styles on Chinese children's early academic achievement and underscore the importance of ATL to children's pre-academic skills, especially for low-SES children.

Behavioral problems and academics of children in inclusive education – A cross-sectional survey

Children with disorders exhibit behavioral issues. Behavioral issues can stem from temporary stressful situations in a person's life or they might also represent more lasting disorders. Special needs children with behavioral disorders can display characteristics such as, inability to learn that is not explained by sensory, health or intellectual factors. The change in behavior can play a significant role in the academic achievements of children placed together in an inclusive environment. This cross-sectional survey is aimed at determining the effect of behavioral issues on academics of children in inclusive education. Purposive sampling technique was used for data collection from Inclusive Education systems of Rawalpindi and Islamabad after getting ethical approval from Internal Review Board in 2018. Sample size consisted of 12 children with special needs and 138 mainstream children. Students of Grade 1 with behavioral problems being reported by their class teachers were included in study after getting parental voluntary consent. Structured classroom activity, behavioral checklist and school routine skills checklist were used for data collection purpose. The result of this study showed that there was a significant difference between the structured activities, school routine skills and overall behavioral checklist of special needs group and main stream children. 75.3% of special needs children struggled with the structured activity whereas 66.7% of the mainstream children faced no difficulty at all. The school routine skills were completed by 89.9% of the children and only 33.3% of the special needs children were able to complete these skills during school hours. The behavior checklist exhibited that 94.9% of mainstream children exhibited no behavioral issues whereas 66.3% of special needs kids displayed behavioral concerns. It is concluded that there is a significant relationship between the overall behavior of the participants of both groups with the structured activity and the school routine skill.