Fourth-grade Children Research Articles

The Effects of the LiiNK Intervention on Physical Activity and Obesity Rates among Children

Background: Obesity and inactivity among children are at an all-time high and have been steadily increasing in prevalence over the last thirty years. The school environment provides the ideal setting for reaching a large number of children across diverse populations in order to reverse these trends. However, there are many inconsistent results yielded by school-based physical activity interventions due to implementation length, time for activities, and the use of structured physical activities. The LiiNK Project® is a whole-child intervention addressing these gaps by providing children 45–60 min of recess (unstructured, outdoor play) in their schools daily, while the control children are allowed to engage in recess for 30 min daily. The purpose of this study was to compare the physical activity intensity and obesity rates of third- and fourth-grade children participating in the LiiNK intervention, which provides 60 min of recess for third graders and 45 min for fourth graders, to those in a control group allowed 30 min of daily recess. Methods: The children were 8–10 years old (M = 9.2; 52% females and 48% males). The intervention children comprised 90 third graders and 100 fourth graders, and the control children comprised 101 third graders and 92 fourth graders. Physical activity levels were monitored using accelerometers to assess sedentary, light, and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Obesity rates were evaluated using bio-electrical impedance analysis (BIA), in which body fat percentage is calculated based on normative values using age and sex in the equation. Results: The third-grade intervention children engaged in 13 more MVPA minutes and took 900 more steps daily than their control counterparts, and also presented a greater proportion of overweight children transitioning to a healthy weight status from the fall to the spring semester. Conversely, the fourth-grade control children increased their activity by 500 steps and 15 more MVPA minutes daily. Despite this, the intervention children overall demonstrated a reduction in body fat percentage, while the control children demonstrated an increase in body fat percentage. Conclusions: Ultimately, 60 min of unstructured, outdoor play in schools provides children the best opportunity to engage in MVPA, which may positively impact body fat percentages, offering a potential strategy for combatting childhood obesity in school settings.

Connectives in written narratives by German-speaking children in fourth grade and adults

Connectives in written narratives by German-speaking children in fourth grade and adults

Resilience in multicultural classrooms: School relationships can protect the school adjustment of immigrant, refugee and non-immigrant children.

According to the risk and resilience perspective, protective factors can attenuate the effect of risks and challenges on children's adjustment. For immigrant and refugee children, supportive relationships in the new context can be particularly beneficial. We expected that supportive school relationships play a protective role for the school adjustment of first-generation immigrant and refugee and non-immigrant children, by moderating the effect of one acculturative challenge (i.e., school language proficiency). We investigated the moderating roles of teacher-child and peer relationship quality on the association between German language proficiency and school adjustment (i.e., school achievement and belongingness) among first-generation immigrant and refugee and non-immigrant children. We recruited n = 278 fourth grade children (Mage = 10.47, SDage = .55, 53.24% female; 37% first-generation immigrant and refugee children). Questionnaires assessed children's reported teacher-child and peer relationship quality and school belongingness. One vocabulary test measured children's German proficiency. School achievement was assessed by their grade point average (GPA) and by a reading comprehension test. To investigate our hypotheses, we performed path analyses. Teacher-child relationship mitigated the effect of German proficiency on children's reading comprehension among all children and on GPA among immigrant and refugee children only. Peer relationship buffered the negative effect of German proficiency on school belongingness. Teacher-child and peer relationship quality can be beneficial for the school adjustment of both first-generation immigrant and refugee children and non-immigrant children.

Exploring the linguistic complexity of third-grade numerical literacy

Reading numbers aloud, a central aspect of numerical literacy, is a challenging skill to acquire, but the origins of this difficulty remain poorly understood. To investigate this matter, we examined the performance of 127 third- and fourth-grade children who read aloud, in Hebrew, numbers with 2–5 digits. We found several key observations. First, we observed a substantial variation among the 3rd graders—7% and 59% errors in the top and bottom deciles, respectively. Second, the task difficulty stemmed from syntactic processing: Most errors were distortions of the number’s syntax, as opposed to digit substitutions or transpositions, and the main factor affecting a specific number’s difficulty was not its magnitude, as is commonly assumed, but rather its syntactic structure. Third, number reading performance was not predicted by a school-like task that assessed syntactic-conceptual knowledge of the decimal system structure, but rather by knowledge of specific syntactic-verbal rules, suggesting that the syntactic-verbal knowledge is separate from the syntactic-conceptual knowledge. Last, there was a double dissociation between 4-digit numbers and 5-digit numbers, which in Hebrew have completely different syntactic structures: Half of the children showed a significant advantage in one number length compared to the other, with equal numbers of children preferring either length. This indicates that the different syntactic-verbal rules are learned relatively independently of each other, with little or no generalization from one rule to another. In light of these findings, we propose that schools should specifically teach number reading, with focus on specific syntactic-verbal rules.

부모의 성취압력과 중학생 자녀 미래관의 관계

Objectives This study investigates the longitudinal effects of parental achievement pressure in fourth and fifth grade on their child’s future perspective in seventh grade. Methods For this purpose, the study used data collected in the 11th (2018), 12th (2019), 13th (2020), and 14th (2021) year of the Panel Study of Korean Children, and it selected 1,115 households that met all the variables. Using the SPSS 27.0 and AMOS 26.0 programs, the study examined the basic attributes of the data and analyzed it with a structural equation model. Results First, there were significant correlations among all the variables including parents' achievement pressure in fourth and fifth grade children, children's self-esteem and overall happiness in sixth grade, and their future perspective in seventh grade. Secondly, children's self-esteem and overall happiness had sequential mediating effects on the relations between parents' achievement pressure and future perspective. That is, parents' achievement pressure in their child’s fourth and fifth grade had effects on their children's self-esteem and overall happiness in sixth grade and thus negative impacts on their future perspective in seventh grade. Conclusions The findings of the study imply that parenting attitudes that are focused on the child’s changes and growth are important in their formation of a positive future perspective in seventh grade. The study examined comprehensively relations among the variables that were partially tested and checked their path, thus holding its significance.

Examining associations between physical activity context and children meeting daily physical activity guidelines: the role of outdoor play, sports, and other organized activities.

Less than one-quarter of US children meet physical activity (PA) guidelines. Understanding the context in which PA occurs and how these contexts may play a role in meeting PA guidelines is an essential step toward developing effective behavioral interventions. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between PA context (sports participation, participation in other organized physical activities, active travel to school, and outdoor play) and the number of days children met PA guidelines in a representative sample of children living in Texas. We analyzed cross-sectional data from a statewide sample of fourth-grade children in Texas who completed the 2019-2020 Texas School Physical Activity and Nutrition (Texas SPAN) survey. The Texas SPAN survey was designed to monitor the statewide prevalence of overweight/obesity among school children and assess habitual self-reported obesity-related behaviors, including diet and PA. Weighted Poisson regression models were employed to examine the associations between PA contexts (sports participation, participation in other organized physical activities, active travel to school, and outdoor play) and the number of days children met PA guidelines, adjusting for sex, race/ethnicity, overweight/obesity, urban-rural status, and economic disadvantage. A total of 16.7% of fourth-grade children met physical activity guidelines every day during the week (mean age = 9.4 ± 0.6 years; female = 48.7, 51.8% Hispanic, mean days meeting PA guideline = 3.6 ± 2.3 days). One in ten (11.2%) children did not meet daily PA guidelines on any day of the week, and 72.1% met them between 1 and 6 days. Participating in sports (b = 0.22, 95%CI:0.14, 0.30), any other organized physical activities (b=0.13, 95%CI:0.017, 0.19), and playing outdoors 1-3 days (b = 0.25, 95%CI:0.04, 0.46) and 4-7 days in the past week (b = 0.77, 95%CI:0.57, 0.97) was significantly and positively associated with the number of days children met PA guidelines. Participating in sports, participating in other organized physical activities, and playing outdoors may beneficially influence the number of days children meet PA guidelines. PA programs should consider these contextual factors and investigate how to promote organized activities and outdoor play effectively and appropriately among children.

The Exploration of Youth School Refusal Problem: Causes, Intervention, and Case Study from Ecological Perspective

兒童青少年拒學問題一直以來都是複雜和難解的課題。研究者基於生態系統觀點探討拒學原因與介入方法，並認為若能分別主要與次要影響因素，先針對主要影響因素進行介入，將更能在有限的時間和資源內改善出席率，故提出三個層次的原因與介入模式。此模式中不同層次差別在主要影響因素的數量不同，層次一包含兩個因素的相互影響，如：個人與家庭。層次二包含三個因素的相互影響，如：個人、家庭與學校。層次三包含四個因素的相互影響。原因部分，個人因素包含身體狀況、心理狀況和特質；家庭因素包含五點，即家長特質與身心健康、家庭功能與動力、家庭期待與參與度...等；學校因素包含六點，即轉換學校、學校氛圍、管教與出席...等；社會因素包含五點，即經濟拉力、文化價值觀、政策或法規...等。介入部分，個人因素包含醫療介入、提升行為技巧、增進認知技巧、提供專業資源；家庭因素包含五點，即進行意外或風險管理訓練、提供諮詢或家訪、提供認知訓練...等；學校因素包含七點，即辨識和轉介高風險學生、推動反霸凌政策、鼓勵學習社群與生涯活動...等；社會因素包含社區資源、警政與司法、社會機構與媒體、教育、諮商與醫療。最後提出中年級拒學案例說明如何改善拒學。Problematic school refusal in youth has long been a complex and vexatious issue. This article reviews the literature that affect school refusal based on ecological perspective. It is believed that if we can differentiate between primary and secondary influencing factors and first intervene with the primary influencing factors, we can better improve school attendance within limited time and resources. Furthermore, a three-level model that emphasizes on comprehensive causes and user-friendly systematic intervention recommendations is proposed. Level one includes the interaction of two factors, such as the individual and the family. Level two includes the interaction of three factors, namely the individual, family, and school. Level three includes the interaction of four factors. Among the causes, personal factors can be addressed through physical condition, mental condition and trait. Family factors include five points, such as parents’ trait, mental and physical health, family function and family dynamic, family expectations and involvement... etc... School factors include six points, namely transferring schools, school atmosphere, discipline and attendance policies...etc.. Social factors include five points, such as economic pressures, cultural values, policies or regulations...etc.. Regarding interventions, personal factors can be addressed through medical treatment, enhancing behavioral skills, increasing cognitive skills, and providing professional resources. Family factors include five points, namely conducting accident or risk training, consultation and home visits, providing cognitive training...etc.. School factors include seven points, such as identifying and referring high-risk students, promoting an anti-bullying policy, encouraging learning groups and career activities...etc... Social factors include community resources, policing and Justice, social organizations and media, education, counseling and medical services. In the end, there is a case example of a fourth-grade child, explains how to address school refusal.

Win-win or lose-lose: Children prefer the form of equality

In middle childhood, children's sense of fairness further develops, they are willing to pay a cost to maintain equality. Win-win and lose-lose are two forms of equality. Win-win equality refers to both parties maximizing benefits, while lose-lose equality means both parties incurring the maximum loss. Win-win equality allows third party upholding fairness to gain more reputational benefits without the violator being punished, embodying the principle of “benefiting oneself without harming others”. On the other hand, lose-lose equality is a more deterrent form of fairness with the violator getting punished, and the third-party might experience a situation of “effort without appreciation.” However, the specific form of equality which school-aged children prefer still requires further exploration. Therefore, adopting the dictator game paradigm of third-party punishment, we design two experiments to investigate the fairness preference of first to fourth-grade children when acting as a third party and to clarify patterns of age-related changes. Study 1 (N = 111) explored children's preferred form of fairness under advantageous inequity conditions. Study 2 (N = 122) further examined children's fairness preferences in disadvantageous inequity situations. The findings suggest that when confronted with inequitable distributions, whether rooted in disadvantageous or advantageous inequity, children display a notable tendency to utilize third-party punishment to achieve an equal allocation. Meanwhile, this tendency strengthens as they progress in grade levels. Notably, children consistently manifest a preference for win-win equality, highlighting their inclination towards mutually beneficial outcomes.

Correlates of Motor Competence in Primary School Students: A Cross-Sectional Study From a Portuguese Municipality

Children’s motor competence (MC) levels tend to be low, and the investigation of variables that facilitate skillfulness is an important concern. The socioecological model is a useful framework to explore factors that influence MC and to inform the development of targeted interventions. This cross-sectional study aimed to perform an exploratory analysis of MC correlates among children. The sample comprised 267 second- and fourth-grade children (120 female; Mage = 102 months, SD = 14 months) from six primary schools. The children’s legal guardian questionnaire collected sociodemographic, behavioral, and family variables. MC was assessed with the Motorische Basiskompetenzen battery. Data analysis involved simple and multiple regression models. The mean total Motorische Basiskompetenzen score was 8.9 (3.4) out of a maximum score of 16. Sex, age, body mass index, and physical activity and sports clubs were significantly related to total MC in all models (p < .05). The final model predicted a variance of 24.5%, adjusted R2 = .245, F(20, 246) = 5.32, p < .001, with male sex (B = 2.03) and organized physical activity (B = 0.35) being positively associated with total MC. Fourth grade (B = −3.6) and body mass index (B = −0.23) were negatively associated with MC. The study provides provisional evidence for the role of some sociodemographic and behavioral factors in MC development, which are important to design future MC interventions.

Leveraging brain science for impactful advocacy and policymaking: The synergistic partnership between developmental cognitive neuroscientists and a parent-led grassroots movement to drive dyslexia prevention policy and legislation

Reading proficiency is crucial for academic, vocational, and economic success and has been closely linked to health outcomes. Unfortunately, in the United States, a concerning 63% of fourth-grade children are reading below grade level, with approximately 7%–10% exhibiting a disability in word reading, developmental dyslexia. Research in developmental cognitive neuroscience indicates that individuals with dyslexia show functional and structural brain alterations in regions processing reading and reading-related information, with some of these differences emerging as early as preschool and even infancy. This suggests that some children start schooling with less optimal brain architecture for learning to read, emphasizing the need for preventative education practices. This article reviews educational policies impacting children with dyslexia and highlights a decentralized parent-led grassroots movement, Decoding Dyslexia, which centers the voices of those directly impacted by dyslexia. It utilizes civic engagement practices, advocacy and lobbying on local, federal, and social media platforms, and strong partnerships with scientists to drive systems-level change in educational practices, leading to dyslexia prevention legislation across the U.S. The ongoing partnership continues to address the profound gaps between scientific findings and policymaking to drive systems-level change for contemporary challenges in educational practices within a learning disabilities framework.

Understanding Children’s Accuracy in Recognizing Facial Expressions of Pain

Facial expressions of pain have an adaptive function in informing others of the need of attention and care. The detection of these nonverbal cues is particularly important in children since they are not always capable of expressing their needs verbally. Nevertheless, research recurrently shows that distinguishing between genuine, suppressed, and simulated pain expressions produced by children is a difficult task for adults; even when their professions require such a skill (e.g. doctors or nurses). Only a few studies have explored the development of this specific ability amongst children’s peers. The current study aims to fill this literature gap by exploring children’s ability to recognize and judge genuine, simulated, and suppressed expressions of pain produced by other children their age. Seventy-nine children from kindergarten to fourth grade viewed videos in which children encoders expressed the three aforementioned types of pain while plunging their hand in cold or warm water. Participants were asked to select the type of pain that was expressed. They were also asked their level of confidence in their answer and the level of pain they thought the children were experiencing. Despite having a high level of confidence in their answers, kindergarteners had a significantly lower proportion of correct answers compared to children in third and fourth grade. Furthermore, regardless of their grade level, children were better at recognizing suppressed pain expressions and had lower performance rates for genuine pain recognition. Our overall findings revealed an improvement in children’s performance with aging.

The effect of attention shifting on Chinese children's word reading in primary school.

This study explored the effects of attention shifting on Chinese children's word reading. The sample consisted of 87 fourth-grade children from Shaoxing City, China. The students completed measures of the attention shifting task, reading accuracy test, reading fluency test, and rapid automatized naming test. The results showed that reading fluency was significantly correlated with attention shifting scores, specifically with tag1 and tag6 (ps < 0.05). The reading accuracy score was also significantly correlated with tag6 (p < 0.05). According to the regression analysis of attention shifting on word reading, even when controlling for rapid automatic naming, attention shifting significantly affected word reading fluency at approximately 600ms (p = .011). Attention shifting did not affect children's word reading accuracy. These findings suggest that attention shifting is significantly associated with children's word reading. Educators should focus on developing children's attention shifting to improve their word reading ability.

Dialogic discussions for enhancing children’s argumentation skills in Indonesian reading sessions

Dialogic discussions offer advantages in improving language and literacy skills. However, research in the Indonesian context on this topic is limited. Furthermore, existing studies also tend to overlook the challenges associated with children’s interactions. To bridge this research gap, this study investigated the role of dialogic discussions in advancing children’s argumentation abilities during Indonesian reading sessions. This study utilized a case study approach, involving sixteen fourth-grade children from a public elementary school. Data were collected through observations, field notes, and audio recordings. The children participated in small group discussions during six reading sessions. These sessions involved exploring both Indonesian fiction and non-fiction texts, centered on significant moral or social questions and dilemmas. The findings revealed an increased use of various argumentation strategies by the children, including presenting reasons, posing challenges, and responding to challenges. Using personally engaging texts proved beneficial for sustaining discussions, as it encouraged children to share their lived experiences and opinions. However, the findings also indicated that children who did not participate seemed distracted during individual tasks. The study provides valuable insights into the dynamics and complexities of small group discussions during Indonesian reading sessions.

IMPROVING THE FOURTH GRADE STUDENT’S VOCABULARY MASTERY THROUGH APPLYING VISUAL AUDITORY KINESTHETIC (VAK) AT SDN 53 LUBUKLINGGAU

The focus of this classroom action research project is to find out how well fourth-grade children at SDN 53 Lubuklinggau comprehend vocabulary by using the Visual Auditory Kinesthetic (VAK) technique. The project intends to improve language acquisition in the classroom by using kinesthetic, auditory, and visual learning methods. This project aims to provide important insights into improving vocabulary education for students in primary schools using a methodical action research approach. It is anticipated that the results will have applications for teachers and curriculum designers who want to create dynamic and captivating language learning environments.

Moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity levels of children with intellectual disability during physical education classes.

Physical education (PE) class is an excellent way to improve moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA). Increasing number of research has explored the children's PA based on movement during PE classes, but data for children with intellectual disability (ID) is still lacking. The purpose of this study was to investigate the current status of MVPA levels of children with ID during PE classes in China, as well as differences of MVPA levels according to gender and grade. Accelerometers were used to record MVPA levels of fifty-three children with severe ID from 9 to 16 years of age (mean age: 12.60 ± 1.66 years) during standard PE classes. The mean time spent in MVPA during PE classes was 8.00 ± 2.10 min, meaning only 22.88% of PE class time was spent in MVPA. As grade levels progresses, time spent in MVPA during PE classes tended to decrease; the fourth-grade children tended to spend more time in MVPA during PE classes compared with the fifth-grade and the sixth-grade (9.15 vs. 7.61 vs. 7.25 min, all p < 0.05). Boys spend significantly more time in MVPA during PE classes than girls; both in the entire sample (9.20 vs. 5.70 min) as well as in each grade (9.76 vs. 6.09 min, 9.35 vs. 5.68 min, 8.31 vs. 5.59 min, all p < 0.05). Findings from this study indicate that the proportion of PE class spent in the MVPA of children with ID was lower than the 50% recommended by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and U.K. Association for Physical Education (AfPE). And the amount of MVPA participation varied by the grade and gender as well as by the activity performed. Therefore, in order to help children with ID achieve MVPA goals, educators need to reevaluate the PE curriculum as well as take due consideration of grade and gender when devising new content.

The Moderating Role of the DYX1C1 Gene in the Effect of Home Supervision on Chinese Children's Reading Achievements: Evidence from the Diathesis-Stress Model.

The current study aimed to explore whether susceptible children (with differences in DYX1C1 (dyslexia susceptibility 1 candidate gene 1) gene) are more likely to be influenced by either supportive or adverse home supervision in their reading achievements. Home supervision, reading achievements, and genotype data were collected from a total of 745 fourth and fifth grade children and their parents in Chongqing, China. The results showed that there was a significant interaction between the rs11629841 polymorphism of the DYX1C1 gene and home supervision on children's reading achievements. A further analysis based on the re-parameterized regression model showed that the interaction best fit a weak diathesis-stress model, which indicated that the home supervision had a stronger predictive effect on children's reading achievements among children with the susceptible genotype than children with a non-susceptible genotype in a more adverse environment rather than in a supportive environment. These results suggested that children carrying different genotypes may need targeted interventions and that their parents should emphasize home supervision to develop their children's reading skills.

Factors Associated with Children’s Humane Attitudes toward Animals

Abstract Various studies have suggested a range of different factors associated with children’s attitudes toward animals; however, in Chile, it is an area that has not been studied. The current study administered the Intermediate Attitude Scale (IAS, which measures attitudes toward the humane treatment of animals) to 286 children in third and fourth grade and analyzed its association with the following variables: type of school, grade, gender, current pet ownership, the recognition accuracy of dog facial expressions, and human-directed empathy. The association between the IAS and potential factors was measured through linear mixed models. Children with higher human-directed empathy scores, fourth-grade children, and children who were more accurate in recognizing the happiness emotion on the dog’s face were associated with more positive attitudes toward the humane treatment of animals. These findings contribute to the growing literature regarding the importance of positive attitudes toward animals and their connection to human-directed empathy.

Validation of the illustrated questionnaire on food consumption for Brazilian schoolchildren (QUACEB) for 6- to 10-year-old children.

Evaluating the food consumption of school-aged children is crucial to monitor their dietary habits, promote targeted interventions, and contribute public policies that aimed healthy eating. In this context, our objective was to develop and validate the Illustrated Questionnaire on Food Consumption for Brazilian Schoolchildren (QUACEB) of 6 to 10 years old, which is a self-reported illustrated recall. Validity was obtained in four stages as follows: selection of foods, validation of items, validation of illustrations, and pretest. Foods were selected by considering the data from the main surveys that have been conducted with the Brazilian population and schoolchildren in recent years, the degree of food processing, and the main foods from each of the country's five macroregions. The content of the items was validated by comparing the children's and their parent's responses. For this, the questionnaire was published in an online format, and 6- to 10-year-old elementary schoolchildren were recruited using the snowball technique. The first part of the questionnaire was answered by the parent after the child's lunch, and the second was completed by the child the following day. Thirty-two parent and child dyads participated. Sensitivity, specificity, area under the curve (AUC), and kappa (k) tests were performed. Of the 30 foods presented on the questionnaire, 15 were reported as consumed. High sensitivity (mean of 88.5%), high specificity (average of 92.0%), substantial agreement (k = 0.78), low disagreement (6.2%), and AUC of 0.90 were found. The illustrations were validated in a focus group with fourth-grade children from a school chosen for convenience. The food illustrations were designed for children, who were asked to name the food. Eighteen children participated and verified that the images were representative of the foods. In the pretest, three schools were chosen for convenience that announced the link to the online questionnaire in WhatsApp groups of parents with students from first to fifth grade. Fifteen children answered the questionnaire and 86.7% (n = 13) judged it excellent or good. Thus, the food consumption questionnaire is valid for elementary schoolchildren of 6 to 10 years old and can be applied in research to assess the dietary patterns of children in Brazil.

Personality disorders of the parents of primary school students and its relationship to their oppositional defiant disorder

The current study aimed to examine the prevalence of certain personality disorders، including antisocial، borderline and narcissistic among parents of basic education students. Similarly، it aimed to examine the prevalence of oppositional defiant disorder among basic education students، and the differences in the prevalence of these disorders according to gender. The current study also aimed to investigate the contribution of parents’ personality disorders in the variance of children’s oppositional defiant disorder. The researchers prepared four measures to examine parent’s personality disorders، and oppositional defiant disorder according to DSM-5. Regarding the study sample، the data was collected throughout a multi-stages random sampling method. One thousand eight hundred parents (900 fathers and 900 mothers) of third، fourth and fifth grade children in Sulaymanyeah basic education schools participated in the current study. Along with the parents، sixty teachers also filled out the oppositional defiant disorder questionnaire.The results indicated that the prevalence of antisocial personality disorder was %1 for both parents، and the prevalence of borderline personality disorder among mother was %2 and was %3 for father respectively. The narcissistic personality reached %5 according to the mothers’ questionnaire and was %4 according to the fathers’ questionnaire. Concerning the prevalence of children’s oppositional defiant disorder، based on the parents report، it was found that %5 children suffer from this and %6 based on the teacher reports. The findings also showed no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of parent’s antisocial personality disorder. However، a significant difference was noticed in borderline personality disorder in favor of the fathers. In addition، the prevalence of narcissistic personality disorder was found to be higher among mother compared to fathers. Gender difference was also found in oppositional defiant disorder، suggesting that males manifested higher level of oppositional defiant disorder than females. Finally، the result of the study indicated a positive correlation between parents’ antisocial personality disorder and children’s oppositional defiant disorder.

The Association Between Self-Disclosure Patterns and Loneliness in Fourth Grade Children

Objectives: This study examined the association between self-disclosure patterns and loneliness in fourth grade children. Specifically, we aimed to explore the multidimensionality of self-disclosure and distinguish between social and emotional loneliness.Methods: The study included 514 fourth grade elementary school students residing in Seoul (male: 261). Latent profile analysis was used to distinguish different patterns of self-disclosure. Furthermore, hierarchical regression analysis was conducted to investigate the association between each pattern and loneliness.Results: First, children's self-disclosure patterns in fourth grade were classified into three groups. The straightforward group was characterized by high levels of depth, and moderate levels of amount, accuracy, and positiveness. Whereas the sugarcoating group reported the highest levels of positiveness, and moderate levels of amount, accuracy, and depth. However, the passive group was characterized by low levels of amount and depth, moderate levels of accuracy, and slightly high levels of positiveness. Second, the passive group felt lonelier than the other two patterns of children, and the sugarcoating group experience less loneliness than the other two patterns of children. Despite the straightforward group's tendency to openly share their inner selves with others, they experienced a higher level of loneliness than the sugarcoating group.Conclusion: This study highlighted the importance of examining children's self-disclosure patterns to alleviate their loneliness. Furthermore, children's self-disclosure can be classified into different patterns. The findings emphasized the necessity of developing intervention plans tailored to different self-disclosure patterns to effectively address children's feelings of loneliness.