Childhood Behavior Research Articles

Childhood Aggressive Behavior and Adolescent Substance Use Initiation.

Drug and alcohol use before the age of 14 is associated with adverse outcomes over the life course. While previous studies have identified numerous sociodemographic characteristics associated with youth substance use initiation, few have examined the relationship between behavioral characteristics, such as childhood aggression, and substance use initiation in adolescence. This longitudinal study consisted of 2985 children from the Future of Families and Child Wellbeing Study. Aggression was measured using primary caregiver report when the children were about the age of 9 and cigarette, alcohol, and marijuana use was measured using the child report when the children were age 9 and age 15. Separate multivariable Poisson regression models were fitted for each substance use initiation outcome. Childhood aggression was positively associated with the initiation of cigarette and marijuana use in adolescence (aRR = 2.3 [95% CI = 1.5,3.4] and aRR = 1.3 [95% CI = 1.1,1.6], respectively). Childhood aggression was not associated with adolescent alcohol use initiation (aRR = 1.2 [95% CI = 0.9,1.5]). The presence of aggressive behavior in childhood was associated with the initiation of cigarette and marijuana use in adolescence. These results may be used to identify children at higher risk of cigarette and marijuana use, who may benefit from additional monitoring for substance use initiation.

Cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between the 24-hour movement behaviours, including muscle and bone strengthening activity, with bone and lean mass from childhood to adolescence

BackgroundThis study aimed to assess whether moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), sport and exercise as a proxy measure of muscle and bone strengthening activity, sedentary behaviour, and sleep were associated with total-body-less-head (TBLH) bone mineral content (BMC) and TBLH lean mass cross-sectionally and longitudinally from age 6 to 9 years and age 9 to 11 years to age 15 to 17 years.MethodsWe used longitudinal data from a population sample of Finnish children from the Physical Activity and Nutrition in Children study (age 6 to 9 years: n = 478, 229 females; age 9 to 11 years: n = 384, 197 females; age 15 to 17 years: n = 222, 103 females). Linear regression analysed the cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between accelerometer-assessed MVPA, sedentary time and sleep, and questionnaire-assessed sport and exercise participation and screen time with dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry-assessed TBLH BMC and lean mass.ResultsIn females, MVPA at age 6 to 9 years was positively associated with TBLH BMC at age 15 to 17 years (β = 0.008, p = 0.010). Sport and exercise at age 9 to 11 years was positively associated with TBLH BMC (β = 0.020, p = 0.002) and lean mass (β = 0.343, p = 0.040) at age 15 to 17 years. MVPA at age 9 to 11 years was positively associated with TBLH lean mass (β = 0.272, p = 0.004) at age 15 to 17 years. In males, sleep at age 6 to 9 years was positively associated with TBLH lean mass (β = 0.382, p = 0.003) at age 15 to 17 years. Sport and exercise at age 9 to 11 years was positively associated with TBLH BMC (β = 0.027, p = 0.012) and lean mass (β = 0.721, p < 0.001) at age 15 to 17 years.ConclusionsPromoting engagement in the 24-hour movement behaviours in childhood, particularly sport and exercise to strengthen muscle and bone, is important in supporting bone and lean mass development in adolescence.Trial registrationNCT01803776; first trial registration date: 04/03/2013.

Childhood conduct problems and parent–child talk during social and nonsocial play contexts: a naturalistic home-based experiment

Parent–child interactions are a critical pathway to emotion socialization, with disruption to these processes associated with risk for childhood behavior problems. Using computational linguistics methods, we tested whether (1) play context influenced parent–child socioemotional language, and (2) child conduct problems or callous-unemotional traits were associated with patterns of socioemotional or nonsocial language across contexts. Seventy-nine parent–child dyads (children, 5–6 years old) played a socioemotional skills (“social context”) or math (“nonsocial context”) game at home. We transcribed and analyzed game play, which had been audio recorded by participants. The social context elicited more socioemotional and cognitive words, while the nonsocial context elicited more mathematical words. The use of socioemotional language by parents and children was more strongly correlated in the social context, but context did not moderate the degree of correlation in cognitive or mathematical word use between parents and children. Children with more conduct problems used fewer socioemotional words in the social context, while children with higher callous-unemotional traits used fewer cognitive words in both contexts. We highlight the role of context in supporting socioemotionally rich parent–child language interactions and provide preliminary evidence for the existence of linguistic markers of child behavior problems. Our results also inform naturalistic assessments of parent–child interactions and home-based interventions for parents and children facing socioemotional or behavioral challenges.

Scoping review on socioemotional skills in the prevention of suicidal behavior among adolescents.

Promoting socioemotional skills has been highlighted among the evidence to prevent suicidal behavior in childhood and adolescence. This review aimed to map and analyze national and international scientific papers on initiatives and programs for the prevention of suicidal behavior in adolescence based on the theoretical framework of socioemotional skills. It is a scoping review using the methodology proposed by the Joanna Briggs Institute. Eleven academic bibliographic databases were analyzed, and searches were conducted on institutional websites related to suicide prevention and Google. Papers in Portuguese, Spanish, French, and English from 2010 to July 2022 were included in the review, which consisted of 97 studies, analyzed through data matrix and thematic grouping. The results show that most are international and focused on suicide, not on self-harm alone. In general, they have an informational and instructional bias for professionals, institutions, and governments, proposed laws, programs and action plans, studies on the role of socioemotional skills and intervention research. Few strategies have been clearly tested and validated. The key elements are the ability to perceive, recognize, understand, express, and regulate one's own emotions, get motivated, and build empathy in relationships. Schools are key players in this process and the health system should act as a collaborative network. National and local prevention plans are required, emphasizing the role of schools, the health sector, and intersectoral coordination to promote health and quality of life.

The relationship of prenatal acetaminophen exposure and attention-related behavior in early childhood

Acetaminophen is currently the only analgesic considered safe for use throughout pregnancy, but recent studies indicate that prenatal exposure to acetaminophen may be related to poorer neurodevelopmental outcomes. Multiple studies have suggested that it may be associated with attention problems, but few have examined this association by trimester of exposure. The Illinois Kids Development Study is a prospective birth cohort located in east-central Illinois. Exposure data were collected between December 2013 and March 2020, and 535 newborns were enrolled during that period. Mothers reported the number of times they took acetaminophen at six time points across pregnancy. When children were 2, 3, and 4 years of age, caregivers completed the Child Behavior Checklist for ages 1.5–5 years (CBCL). Associations of acetaminophen use during pregnancy with scores on the Attention Problems and ADHD Problems syndrome scales, the Internalizing and Externalizing Behavior composite scales, and the Total Problems score were evaluated. Higher acetaminophen exposure during the second trimester of fetal development was associated with higher Attention Problems, ADHD Problems, Externalizing Behavior, and Total Problems scores at ages 2 and 3. Higher second trimester exposure was only associated with higher Externalizing Behavior and Total Problems scores at 4 years. Higher cumulative exposure across pregnancy was associated with higher Attention Problems and ADHD Problems scores at ages 2 and 3. Findings suggest that prenatal acetaminophen exposure, especially during the second trimester, may be related to problems with attention in early childhood.

Physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and sleep knowledge and self-efficacy among parents of young children in Canada.

Engaging in healthy movement behaviours in early childhood is beneficial for children's development, and parents play a critical role in shaping movement habits during these formative years. This study aimed to explore parents' knowledge of the Canadian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines for the Early Years (The Guidelines) and their perceived knowledge and self-efficacy of movement behaviour concepts in early childhood. The influence of sociodemographic characteristics on these variables was also examined. Via a cross-sectional online survey with parents/guardians (n = 576) of young children in Canada, participants' knowledge of The Guidelines (11 items), and perceived knowledge (11 items; 5-point scale) and self-efficacy (11 items; 11-point scale) of movement behaviour concepts in early childhood were examined. Descriptive statistics were calculated for independent variables and multivariate regression models were estimated to examine sociodemographic factors that were associated with participants' knowledge and self-efficacy. Few participants (11.9%) reported to be familiar with The Guidelines. Parents were most knowledgeable about the screen time guideline for children under 2 years (75.0% correctly identified the guideline) and least familiar with the recommendation for toddler/preschooler total physical activity (14.7% correctly identified the guideline). Parents/guardians perceived they were the most knowledgeable about safe sleep practices (65.9% very/extremely knowledgeable) and least knowledgeable about muscle- and bone-strengthening activities (71.8% not at all/somewhat knowledgeable). Overall, parents/guardians were moderately confident in promoting healthy movement behaviours (M = 6.01; SD = 1.73). Participants with higher levels of education reported significantly higher perceived knowledge compared to those who were less educated (p = .004), and parents/guardians identifying as White reported significantly higher levels of self-efficacy compared to parents/guardians from minority ethnic groups (p = .028). Finally, parents/guardians who were more physically active reported both higher perceived knowledge (p < .001) and self-efficacy (p < .001) than those who were less active. These findings shed light on the need to raise awareness of The Guidelines among parents of young children and highlight specific movement behaviour concepts in need of focus in future training for this population. Targeted education for parents/guardians from lower socioeconomic groups is also needed to address equity concerns. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s44167-024-00051-x.

IMPLEMENTASI TERAPI MUSIK TERHADAP PERILAKU HIPERAKTIF ANAK AUTIS DI RA IT THOYYIBAH KERASAAN KECAMATAN PEMATANG BANDAR KABUPATEN SIMALUNGUN

This research discusses the implementation of music therapyas an intervention approach for hyperactive behavior in early childhood. Focusing on the effects of music therapy on improving emotional balance and managing impulsivity, this study involved a number of early childhood participants who had been diagnosed with hyperactivity.The research methodology involved an experimental design with a control group and a treatment group receiving structured music therapy sessions over a specified period. Behavioral data is observed and recorded before, during and after the intervention, while also taking into account emotional responses through special evaluation tools.The research results show that music therapy can have a positive impact on increasing focus of attention, reducing levels of impulsivity, and increasing emotional balance in children who experience hyperactivity. These findings provide an important contribution to the understanding of the potential of music therapy as a non-pharmacological method in managing hyperactive behavior in early childhood, providing new insight into a holistic therapeutic approach in addressing neurobehavioral challenges in early developmental stages.

Evaluating Behavior Modification for Tantrums in Early Childhood: Approaches for Enhanced Management and Intervention

Negative behaviors in children, such as tantrums, are common during early childhood due to inherent egocentric tendencies. Tantrums, if not addressed by parents, can potentially harm the child. Therefore, parents need to employ early-stage behavioral modification techniques to manage tantrums in children, with continuous evaluation. This study focuses on evaluating the modification of tantrum behavior in early childhood, involving a series of procedures to transform negative behaviors into positive ones. The evaluation, as the final stage of the behavior modification process, assesses whether the treated behavior has undergone significant changes by observing and recording its persistence. The research adopts a qualitative approach, utilizing structured interviews for data collection from parents as informants. Data analysis follows the Milles and Huberman model. Purposively selected subjects, children aged 2-6 years, are obtained through interviews and in-depth observations. Results indicate that effective reinforcing actions involve allowing children to express emotions under parental supervision, preventing harm while calming the child through comforting gestures. The final evaluation reveals that children exhibit increased freedom in expressing emotions, yet still under parental supervision.

PSIKOEDUKASI EMPATI “TEPA SLIRA” SEBAGAI UPAYA PENCEGAHAN PERILAKU BULLYING PADA ANAK SEJAK EARLY CHILDHOOD

The phenomenon of bullying has recently been in the spotlight of Indonesian society. Bullying behavior will hinder children's growth in developing empathy and compassion for others. This research aims to determine the effect of empathy psychoeducation "TEPA SLIRA" to increase empathy and prevent bullying behavior in early childhood. This research uses a quasi-experimental research method with a pretest-posttest control group design. The subjects in this research were class A students at TK III Pertiwi, Perumda Tembalang, with a total of 40 students. This research uses an empathy scale instrument adapted from the Child Development Achievement Level Standards (20 items), Goleman (Utami, 2014) in the form of a behavioral checklist. Researchers used the Mann-Whitney comparison test to test the effectiveness of the intervention. The results of data analysis on the tolerance aspect proved to have increased significantly at p&lt;0.05, with the total empathy score increasing. It can be concluded that the "TEPA SLIRA" psychoeducation program has been proven to increase student empathy.

Identification of Prosocial Behaviour and Religious Values through Habituation Method at RA Kusuma Dewi

In this current era, many children do not understand and unfamiliar with prosocial behaviour according to the beliefs of their own religion. There are still many children who have not been able to internalize teir religion values in everyday life. The purpose of this study to develop prosocial behaviour and increase faith through the habit of worship which is carried out every Friday. The method of research is a qualitative approach using interview, observation, and documentation methods. The result of this research is habituation act, every Friday it is carried out through sharing activities and the practice of prayer together can develop prosocial behaviour and increase religious values in early childhood in accordance with the Child Development Achievement Level Standards (STPPA).

Ebeveyn-Çocuk Etkileşim Terapisi

Parent-child interaction therapy is a parent-mediated therapy approach that focuses on solving internalization-externalization problems observed in children aged 2-7. The approach based on parenting styles, attachment theory, behavioral theory, and social learning theories aims to teach play therapy skills to parents. In this direction, each stage was organized as teaching and coaching sessions in an approach that included two phases: a child-directed interaction phase and parent-directed interaction. The first stage, which is the child-directed stage, it is aimed to developing a sincere and warm relationship between the parent and the child by following the child's lead.. In the second phase, the parent-directed interaction phase, effective discipline methods are taught to parents and coached at the point of use, depending on the goal of increasing their child's adaptation skills. Therapy is not time-limited and is performance-oriented. In this study, the general characteristics of parent-child interaction therapy, its historical development, theoretical foundations, the structure of therapy sessions, the intervention process, and parent-child interaction therapy research are included. As a result of the review, depending on the international literature, can be said to be parent-child interaction therapy is an early-term, parent-oriented and evidence-based approach that is effective on early childhood compliance and behavior problems, including children with neurodevelopmental problems, parenting stress, parental efficacy perception, and family harmony.

The Influence of an Elevated Social Rank on Prosocial Behaviour in an Early Childhood, Outsider Population: Towards a Reduction in Bullying Perpetration

The Influence of an Elevated Social Rank on Prosocial Behaviour in an Early Childhood, Outsider Population: Towards a Reduction in Bullying Perpetration

Prevalence and recurrence of pica behaviors in early childhood within the ALSPAC birth cohort.

The present study examined prevalence and correlates of pica behaviors during childhood using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) study. Data on 10,109 caregivers from the ALSPAC study who reported pica behavior at 36, 54, 65, 77, and 115 months on their child were included. Autism was obtained through clinical and education records, while DD was derived from the Denver Developmental Screening Test. A total of 312 parents (3.08%) reported pica behaviors in their child. Of these, 19.55% reported pica at least at two waves (n = 61). Pica was most common at 36 months (N = 226; 2.29%) and decreased as children aged. A significant association was found between pica and autism at all five waves (p < .001). There was a significant relationship between pica and DD, with individuals with DD more likely to experience pica than those without DD at 36 (p = .01), and 54 (p < .001), 65 (p = .04), 77 (p < .001), and 115 months (p = .006). Exploratory analyses examined pica behaviors with broader eating difficulties and child body mass index. This study enhances understanding of childhood pica behaviors, addressing a significant gap in knowledge. Pica occurrence in the general population is poorly understood due to few epidemiological studies. Findings from the present study indicate pica is an uncommon behavior in childhood; however, children with DD or autism may benefit from pica screening and diagnosis between ages 36 and 115 months. Children who exhibit undereating, overeating, and food fussiness may also engage in pica behaviors.

Neighborhood Crime and Externalizing Behavior in Toddlers: A Longitudinal Study With Neonatal fMRI and Parenting

Prenatal exposure to neighborhood crime has been associated with weaker neonatal frontolimbic connectivity; however, associations with early childhood behavior remain unclear. We hypothesized that living in a high-crime neighborhood would be related to higher externalizing symptoms at age 1 and 2 years, over and above other adversities, and that neonatal frontolimbic connectivity and observed parenting behaviors at 1 year would mediate this relationship. Participants included 399 pregnant women, recruited as part of the Early Life Adversity, Biological Embedding, and Risk for Developmental Precursors of Mental Disorders (eLABE) study. Geocoded neighborhood crime data was obtained from Applied Geographic Solution. A total of 319 healthy, non-sedated neonates underwent scanning using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) on a Prisma 3T scanner and had≥10 minutes of high-quality data. Infant-Toddler Socioemotional Assessment Externalizing T scores were available for 274 mothers of 1-year-olds and 257 mothers of 2-year-olds. Observed parenting behaviors were available for 202 parent-infant dyads at 1 year. Multilevel and mediation models tested longitudinal associations. Living in a neighborhood with high violent (β= 0.15, CI= 0.05-0.27, p= .004) and property (β= 0.10, CI= 0.01-0.20, p= .039) crime was related to more externalizing symptoms at 1 and 2 years, controlling for other adversities. Weaker frontolimbic connectivity was also associated with higher externalizing symptoms at 1 and 2 years. After controlling for other adversities, parenting behaviors mediated the specific association between crime and externalizing symptoms, but frontolimbic connectivity did not. These findings provide evidence that early exposure to neighborhood crime and weaker neonatal frontolimbic connectivity may influence later externalizing symptoms, and suggest that parenting may be an early intervention target for families in high-crime areas. We worked to ensure race, ethnic, and/or other types of diversity in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure that the study questionnaires were prepared in an inclusive way. One or more of the authors of this paper self-identifies as a member of one or more historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science. One or more of the authors of this paper self-identifies as a member of one or more historically underrepresented sexual and/or gender groups in science. We actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our author group. We actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our author group. While citing references scientifically relevant for this work, we also actively worked to promote sex and gender balance in our reference list. While citing references scientifically relevant for this work, we also actively worked to promote inclusion of historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science in our reference list. The author list of this paper includes contributors from the location and/or community where the research was conducted who participated in the data collection, design, analysis, and/or interpretation of the work.

Association of Risk Factors and Inflammatory Bowel Disease: a Case Control Study in a Tertiary Level Hospital

The rising incidence of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) in Bangladesh supports the importance of various risk factors in disease etiology. This case-control study aims to measure association of IBD among the patients who were exposed to various risk factors. The study was conducted in patients with IBD and a control group without IBD in the Department of Gastroenterology, Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), Bangladesh during the period of March 2016 to January 2018. Diagnosed IBD patients aged more than eighteen years admitted or visiting for follow up in the Department of Gastroenterology were selected as cases. Controls were selected from patient’s attendants other than IBD, where age and sex were matched with cases. Controls were non-relative to the cases in the same department, and free from any bowel symptoms. Data were collected by using pre-tested questionnaire and then analyzed. Total 164 participants were selected among them 82 cases and 82 controls. Among the cases, 38 patients were diagnosed as ulcerative colitis and 44 patients were diagnosed as Crohn’s disease. Study found that ulcerative colitis were associated with the following factors namely being smoker (OR 20.31; 95% CI 2.39-172), exposure to pets (OR 11.24; 95% CI 1.86-67.76), not drinking boiling water (OR 7.33; 95%CI 1.62-33.05), bathing in open water such as river and ponds (OR 5.04; 95% CI 1.04-24.40), walking bare footed in grounds and toilet (OR 10.49; 95% CI 2.08-52.78), taking street food (OR 5.17; 95% CI1.15-23.28) and soft drinks (OR 11.55; 95% CI 0.24-9.48), where high odds ratios (OR) were measures. On the other hand, crohn’s disease were associated with the factors of being smoker (OR 10.30; 95%CI 1.15-91.9), exposure to pets (OR 19.19; 95% CI 1.74-211), not drinking boiling water (OR 10.33; 95% CI 2.54-43.51), bathing in open water such as river and ponds (OR 6.48;95% CI 1.35-31.09), consuming unpasteurized milk (OR 8.50; 95% CI 1.71-42.10) and soft drinks (OR 42.74; 95% CI 5.56-328). This study determined the risk factors of IBD in the ground of childhood behavior, hygienic condition and dietary habit for the development of IBD. Bangladesh Med J. 2022 May; 51(2): 1-12

Childhood and adolescent factors shaping vulnerability to underage entry into sex work: a quantitative hierarchical analysis of female sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya

ObjectiveTo explore factors associated with early age at entry into sex work, among a cohort of female sex workers (FSWs) in Nairobi, Kenya.BackgroundYounger age at sex work initiation increases the...

Preliminary Investigation of the Influence of Treatment Regimen on Outcomes in Behavioral Parent Training

Caregiver engagement and implementation of behavioral strategies are essential to effective interventions targeting childhood behavior problems. The aim of this preliminary investigation was to better understand caregiver decision-making when selecting different treatment regimens in an open trial format. Treatment packages included: (1) an intensive treatment program (ITP), involving a compressed 20-hour intervention occurring 2 hours per day for 10 days; and (2) a standard dosage treatment as usual (TAU) behavioral treatment program, involving weekly 50-minute appointments. Sixty-seven families with a child between 4–11 years old (M age = 5.82) with clinically significant problem behaviors self-referred to a hospital-based outpatient behavior therapy program. Results suggest that while caregivers chose a standard treatment regimen at a ratio of 2:1, compressed treatment (ITP) was associated with increased caregiver engagement and more significant reductions in child target behavior using both direct and indirect measures. Findings provide preliminary support for the use of high dosage treatment regimens as a means of increasing caregiver engagement and in the reduction of problem behavior in young children.

Learning Model to Overcome Aggressive Behavior Early Childhood

This research aims to determine the characteristics of early childhood behaviour, the factors that influence aggressive behaviour in early childhood, and the learning models used by educators to overcome aggressive behaviour. This research uses qualitative research methods with case studies. The subject selection method used purposive sampling included educators, parents of educational participants, and the head of the PAUD program. The research results show that a differentiated learning model using loose parts media can change children's aggressive behaviour. Before implementing the educator model, educators take an individual approach to children. The characteristics of children who have aggressive behaviour in PAUD are shown verbally, such as mocking, speaking harshly, shouting, getting angry, and spreading things when their desires are not fulfilled, while aggressive actions through non-verbal actions in early childhood, such as hitting, pushing, and grabbing. Toy friends. Factors that influence aggressive behaviour in this research are biological or innate, environmental factors and parenting patterns that spoil children too much. Keywords: Learning Model, Behavior Childhood Aggression, Early Childhood

Temperament in Toddlers With and Without Prelingual Hearing Loss.

The purpose of this study is to examine parent-reported ratings of temperament in toddlers with and without prelingual hearing loss. The parent-completed Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire (ECBQ) was used to assess temperament in toddlers aged 18-36 months. Three dimensions of temperament were examined: surgency, negative affectivity, and effortful control. Analyses were conducted to (a) examine differences in temperament across toddlers with and without prelingual hearing loss; (b) examine possible associations between temperament, demographic, and communication factors; and (c) determine if the ECBQ is sensitive to differences in hearing, communication, and listening skills among toddlers with prelingual hearing loss. The parent-completed ECBQ revealed that toddlers with prelingual hearing loss differed from their hearing peers on some but not all dimensions of temperament. Specifically, children with prelingual hearing loss were rated as displaying higher levels of surgency and lower levels of effortful control but comparable levels of negative affectivity when compared to their hearing peers. Regression analyses revealed that chronological age and communication strategy predicted scores of effortful control in toddlers with prelingual hearing loss, whereas chronological age alone predicted scores of effortful control in toddlers with hearing. Finally, the ECBQ appears to contain "listening" items that skew (lower) levels of effortful control in toddlers with prelingual hearing loss, such that only the group effect of higher levels of surgency remained after removing these "listening" items. Correlations between the original and our modified ECBQ (removing the "listening" items) revealed strong associations, reflective of high construct validity. This was the first study to measure temperament in toddlers with prelingual hearing loss using the ECBQ. Our results revealed differences between children with and without prelingual hearing loss centering on the dimension of surgency. Examining differences in temperament during the toddler period of development may be particularly important and useful for predicting functional outcomes following prelingual hearing loss.

Supplemental Material for Prenatal Stress and Externalizing Behaviors in Childhood and Adolescence: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Supplemental Material for Prenatal Stress and Externalizing Behaviors in Childhood and Adolescence: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis