Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond Detector Research Articles

Validation of the diamond detectors for the Super Fragment Separator beam diagnostics

The Super-FRS at the FAIR accelerator complex will adopt Chemical Vapor Deposition diamond detectors as radiation-hard particle rate counters. Their role will be to monitor the beam transmission for beams with ions rates up to 107 ions/spill and to calibrate the other beam diagnostics devices that are in duty at higher beam intensities. The target vacuum chamber of the Super-FRS hosts a 7 × 7 mm2 single crystal diamond and a 25 × 25 mm2 polycrystalline diamond: they are required to detect crossing particles with high efficiency (> 98%) in the case of heavy ion species (Ar to U), and to stand for several years in an environment in which they can potentially accumulate a dose of a few MGy per year. Laboratory measurements and beam test campaigns were arranged in the past years for the validation of the proposed sensors, in particular for the case of the polycrystalline technology. Here we report the outcome of the irradiation of a sensor based on a 20 × 20 mm2 polycrystalline diamond produced by Element Six, with high intensity 1 GeV/nucleon Pb and U beams at GSI (Darmstadt). The detector signal shape characteristics and the ion counting efficiency have been monitored by interleaving periods of low ions rates, to evaluate possible damages or performance degradation during and after a total bombardment of about 6 × 1011 heavy ions.

Development of the Beam Conditions Monitoring Prime system for beam abort and luminosity monitoring in ATLAS based on a segmented polycrystalline CVD diamond system and dedicated front-end ASIC

The High Luminosity upgrade of Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC) will increase the LHC luminosity and with it the density of particles on the detector by an order of magnitude. For protecting the inner silicon detectors of the ATLAS experiment and for monitoring the delivered luminosity, a radiation hard beam monitor was developed based on polycrystalline Chemical Vapor Deposition (pCVD) diamond detectors and a new dedicated rad-hard front-end ASIC. Due to the large range of particle flux through the detector, flexibility is very important. To satisfy the requirements imposed by the HL-LHC, our solution is based on segmenting diamond sensors into devices of varying size and reading them out with new multichannel readout ASICs divided into two independent parts — each of them serving one of the tasks of the system. This paper describes the system design including detectors, electronics, mechanics and services and presents preliminary results from the most recent detectors fabricated, using our prototype ASIC with data from beam tests at CERN.

Determining spectral response of the National Ignition Facility particle time of flight diagnostic to x rays.

The Particle Time of Flight (PTOF) diagnostic is a chemical vapor deposition diamond detector used for measuring multiple nuclear bang times at the National Ignition Facility. Due to the non-trivial, polycrystalline structure of these detectors, individual characterization and measurement are required to interrogate the sensitivity and behavior of charge carriers. In this paper, a process is developed for determining the x-ray sensitivity of PTOF detectors and relating it to the intrinsic properties of the detector. We demonstrate that the diamond sample measured has a significant non-homogeneity in its properties, with the charge collection well described by a linear model ax + b, where a = 0.63 ± 0.16V-1mm-1 and b = 0.00 ± 0.04V-1. We also use this method to confirm an electron to hole mobility ratio of 1.5 ± 1.0 and an effective bandgap of 1.8eV rather than the theoretical 5.5eV, leading to a large sensitivity increase.

Fusion product diagnostics based on commercially available chemical vapor deposition diamond detector in large helical device

Fusion product diagnostics based on four commercially available single-crystal chemical vapor deposition (s-CVD) diamond detectors are installed in the Large Helical Device (LHD) in order to understand energetic ion confinement. Characteristics of s-CVD diamonds were surveyed using alpha and D-T neutron sources. It is found that the energy resolutions of s-CVD diamonds for ∼ 5 MeV alpha particles and 14 MeV neutrons are 1%–3% and ∼ 1.7%, respectively. Moreover, the response of four s-CVD diamond detectors to alpha particles and D-T neutrons is almost identical. The installation positions of the diamond detectors in the vacuum vessel are searched for, based on the loss points of charged fusion products reckoned by Lorentz orbit calculations. Energy- and time-resolved measurement of fusion product flux will progress in further understanding of energetic ion confinement in LHD.

Development and signals simulation of a diamond detector neutral particle analyzer on Huanliu-2A (HL-2A) tokamak.

A new neutral particle analyzer (NPA) diagnostic based on single crystal chemical vapor deposition (sCVD) diamond detector that provides measurements of fast ions has been designed and installed on HL-2A tokamak. Diamond detectors have been applied in some magnetic confinement fusion devices due to their outstanding properties of compact size and radiation hardness. This DNPA can measure energies above 13.4keV. The line of sight (LOS) of the DNPA intersects with the NBI No. 2 with a tangency radius of 154.8cm. Due to the pitch angle defined by the LOS and geometry of the diagnostic, the DNPA is mainly sensitive to trapped ions. To interpret the energy spectrum and verify the feasibility of the design of the DNPA, a Monte Carlo code called FIDASIM, which is a synthetic diagnostic code that simulates fast ion D-alpha and NPA signals, is applied to model the neutral flux reaching the detector. The results show that the flux is mainly contributed by the low energy fast ions (E < 10keV) and it is mainly coming from the active components, the passive signal is dominant in the high energy region (E > 15keV). The modeling features the ability to distinguish between active and passive signals, and the simulated strong passive signals are suggested to come from charge exchange between cold neutrals and fast ions around the plasma edge. In addition, despite the large ratio of halo neutrals, essentially it has a limited contribution to the energy spectrum.

Charge collection efficiency of scCVD diamond detectors at low temperatures

The charge collection efficiency (CCE) in electronic grade, single crystal chemical vapor deposition (scCVD) diamond detector was studied using different ions of the MeV energy range from room temperature down to 47 K. The measurements were performed by using the ion beam induced charge (IBIC) technique, with 0.8 MeV H+, 3 MeV He2+, 5.6 MeV Li2+, and 12.8 MeV C4+ ion beams. The total accumulated charge as a function of temperature was extracted from the measured pulse height spectra. A similar decreasing trend of the detector CCE with temperature was observed for all ion species. A plateau was observed from room temperature to 145 K followed by a sharp, step like, decrease in the temperature range of 65 K < T < 145 K. Below 65 K, the CCE reaches another plateau with small variations down to 47 K. The decrease in collected charge was observed in the same temperature window for each ion. However, the level of the CCE decrease varied. For He, Li and C, the CCE decreased to 24.7 ± 0.4 %, 23.6 ± 1.3 %, 25.9 ± 0.8 % respectively while 39.3 ± 0.8 % for H. The reduction of the CCE is in agreement with earlier reported results obtained by alpha particles which was associated with the changes in lifetime of excitons in diamond.

Neutron-induced signal on the single crystal chemical vapor deposition diamond-based neutral particle analyzer.

A diamond-based neutral particle analyzer (DNPA) array composed of single-crystal chemical vapor deposition (sCVD) diamond detectors was installed on the Large Helical Device (LHD) for measuring the helically trapped energetic particles. In high neutron flux experiments, the unwanted neutron-induced pulse counting rate should be estimated using the neutron diagnostics because a diamond detector is sensitive to neutrons as well as energetic neutral particles. In order to evaluate the quantitative neutron-induced pulse counting rate on the DNPA, the response functions of the sCVD diamond detector for mono-energetic neutrons were obtained using accelerator-based D-D and D-7Li neutron sources in Fast Neutron Laboratory (FNL). As a result of the neutron flux estimation by the Monte Carlo N-Particle code at the NPA position in the LHD and the response function obtained in the FNL experiment, the counting rate of the neutron-induced signal was predicted to be 1.1 kcps for the source neutron emission rate of Sn = 1 × 1015 n/s. In the LHD experiment, the neutron-induced signals were observed by closing the gate valve during the plasma discharges. It is found that the counting rates of the neutron-induced signals proportional to Sn reached 1.1 kcps at Sn = 1 × 1015 n/s. As a result of the quantitative estimation of the neutron-induced signals on the DNPA using other neutron measurements, it has become possible to accurately measure energetic neutral particles in the high neutron flux experiment.

Electronic Properties of a Synthetic Single-Crystal Diamond Exposed to High Temperature and High Radiation.

Diamond, as a wide band-gap semiconductor material, has the potential to be exploited under a wide range of extreme operating conditions, including those used for radiation detectors. The radiation tolerance of a single-crystal chemical vapor deposition (scCVD) diamond detector was therefore investigated while heating the device to elevated temperatures. In this way, operation under both high-temperature and high-radiation conditions could be tested simultaneously. To selectively introduce damage in small areas of the detector material, a 5 MeV scanning proton microbeam was used as damaging radiation. The charge collection efficiency (CCE) in the damaged areas was monitored using 2 MeV protons and the ion beam induced charge (IBIC) technique, indicating that the CCE decreases with increasing temperature. This decreasing trend saturates in the temperature range of approximately 660 K, after which CCE recovery is observed. These results suggest that the radiation hardness of diamond detectors deteriorates at elevated temperatures, despite the annealing effects that are also observed. It should be noted that the diamond detector investigated herein retained its very good spectroscopic properties even at an operation temperature of 725 K (≈2% for 2 MeV protons).

Enhanced radiation hardness and signal recovery in thin diamond detectors

Using the advantage of the high spatial resolution of the Ruđer Bošković Institute (RBI) ion microprobe, small areas of a thin membrane single crystal chemical vapor deposition (scCVD) diamond detector were intentionally damaged with a high-intensity 26-MeV oxygen ion beam at various fluences, producing up to ∼1018 vacancies/cm3. The response of the detector was tested with the ion beam-induced charge technique (IBIC) using a 2-MeV proton beam as a probe. The signal amplitudes decreased down to approximately 50% of the original value at low electric fields (&amp;lt;10 V/μm) inside the detector. However, the increase of electric field to values of ∼100 V/μm completely recovers the signal amplitude. The results presented herein can facilitate the development of true radiation hard particle detectors.

Toward Pulse by Pulse Dosimetry Using an SC CVD Diamond Detector

Solid state detectors with nanosecond response times to incoming radiation are increasingly present at the forefront of radiotherapy dosimetry research. The fast response time of materials, such as diamond, allow pulse by pulse dosimetry. There is a trend in radiotherapy to move toward shorter treatments, using fewer but more intense pulses with varying pulse rates and intensities. This makes the possibility of measuring individual pulses very attractive and would allow intervention during the treatment and not just afterwards. Here, an analogue front end has been developed and combined with a chemical vapor deposition diamond detector to provide real time, pulse by pulse beam intensity measurements. The front end design is discussed and the experimental results obtained using a medical linear accelerator are presented. The results show that the device is capable of pulse by pulse beam intensity measurements up to pulse rates well above 1 kHz. The system performs so well that its variations are negligible compared to the pulse to pulse intensity variations. The dosimetric performance of our system was compared to a commercially available, integrating diamond detector, the microDiamond by PTW. The dose and dose-rate linearity of our system is comparable with the one of the microDiamond and has the additional advantage of being able to measure the deposited dose per pulse.

Pulse-height defect in single-crystal CVD diamond detectors

The pulse-height versus deposited energy response of a single-crystal chemical vapor deposition (scCVD) diamond detector was measured for ions of Ti, Cu, Nb, Ag, Xe, Au, and of fission fragments of 252 Cf at different energies. For the fission fragments, data were also measured at different electric field strengths of the detector. Heavy ions have a significant pulse-height defect in CVD diamond material, which increases with increasing energy of the ions. It also depends on the electrical field strength applied at the detector. The measured pulse-height defects were explained in the framework of recombination models. Calibration methods known from silicon detectors were modified and applied. A comparison with data for the pulse-height defect in silicon detectors was performed.

The13C(n,α0)10Be cross section at 14.3 MeV and 17 MeV neutron energy

At nuclear fusion reactors, CVD diamond detectors are considered an advantageous solution for neutron flux monitoring. For such applications the knowledge of the cross section of neutron-induced nuclear reactions on natural carbon are of high importance. Especially the (n,α0) reactions, yielding the highest energy reaction products, are of relevance as they can be clearly distinguished in the spectrum. The 13C(n,α0)10Be cross section was measured relative to 12C(n,α0)9Be at the Van de Graaff facility of EC-JRC Geel, Belgium, at 14.3 MeV and 17.0 MeV neutron energies. The measurement was performed with an sCVD (single-crystal Chemical Vapor Deposition) diamond detector, where the detector material acted simultaneously as sample and as sensor. A novel data analysis technique, based on pulse-shape discrimination, allowed an efficient reduction of background events. The results of the measurement are presented and compared to previously published values for this cross-section.

Ionization signals from diamond detectors in fast-neutron fields

In this paper we introduce a novel analysis technique for measurements with single-crystal chemical vapor deposition (sCVD) diamond detectors in fast-neutron fields. This method exploits the unique electronic property of sCVD diamond sensors that the signal shape of the detector current is directly proportional to the initial ionization profile. In fast-neutron fields the diamond sensor acts simultaneously as target and sensor. The interaction of neutrons with the stable isotopes 12 C and 13 C is of interest for fast-neutron diagnostics. The measured signal shapes of detector current pulses are used to identify individual types of interactions in the diamond with the goal to select neutron-induced reactions in the diamond and to suppress neutron-induced background reactions as well as $ \gamma$ -background. The method is verified with experimental data from a measurement in a 14.3 MeV neutron beam at JRC-IRMM, Geel/Belgium, where the 13C(n, $ \alpha$ )10Be reaction was successfully extracted from the dominating background of recoil protons and $ \gamma$ -rays and the energy resolution of the 12C(n, $ \alpha$ )9Be reaction was substantially improved. The presented analysis technique is especially relevant for diagnostics in harsh radiation environments, like fission and fusion reactors. It allows to extract the neutron spectrum from the background, and is particularly applicable to neutron flux monitoring and neutron spectroscopy.

Time Dependent DD Neutrons Measurement Using a Single Crystal Chemical Vapor Deposition Diamond Detector on EAST**supported by the National Magnetic Confinement Fusion Science Program of China (Nos. 2013GB106004 and 2012GB101003) and National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 91226102)

A single crystal chemical vapor deposition (scCVD) diamond detector has been successfully employed for neutron measurements in the EAST (Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak) plasmas. The scCVD diamond detector coated with a 5 μm 6LiF (95% 6Li enriched) layer was placed inside a polyethylene moderator to enhance the detection efficiency. The time-dependent neutron emission from deuteron plasmas during neutral beam injection (NBI) heating was obtained. The measured results are compared with that of fission chamber detectors, which always act as standard neutron flux monitors. The scCVD diamond detector exhibits good reliability, stability and the capability to withstand harsh radiation environments despite its low detection efficiency due to the small active volume.

13C(n, $\alpha_{0}$ )10Be cross section measurement with sCVD diamond detector

This paper presents 13C(n, $\alpha_{0}$ )10Be cross section measurements performed at the Van de Graaff facility of the Joint Research Centre Geel. The 13C(n, $\alpha_{0}$ )10Be cross section was measured relative to the 12C(n, $\alpha_{0}$ )9Be cross section at 14.3 MeV and 17.0 MeV neutron energies. The measurements were performed with an sCVD (single-crystal chemical vapor deposition) diamond detector which acted as sample and as sensor simultaneously. A novel analysis technique was applied, which is based on the pulse-shape analysis of the detector’s ionization current. This technique resulted in an efficient separation of background events and consequently in a well-determined selection of the nuclear reaction channels 12C(n, $\alpha_{0}$ )9Be and 13C(n, $\alpha_{0}$ )10Be.

Application of a single crystal chemical vapor deposition diamond detector for deuteron plasma neutron measurement

A single crystal chemical vapor deposition (scCVD) diamond detector has been characterized and employed for the neutron measurement at the HL-2A tokamak device. The scCVD diamond detector has been deposited with 5μm of lithium fluoride (LiF) layer to enhance the sensitivity to thermal neutrons. Time stability of the detector has been studied with α-source and good performance has been found for more than 12h. Neutron irradiations have been performed in four quasi-monoenergetic neutron fields in the energy range from 2.50MeV to 16.03MeV. The measured response function of the scCVD diamond detector to 14.13MeV neutrons shows a narrow 12C (n, α)9Be reaction peak which is well isolated from other structures by about 1MeV in energy, indicating the great potential as a fast neutron spectrometer. Neutron measurement of deuterium plasma discharge was established at the HL-2A tokamak device, and good consistence has been revealed among this detector signal and other related signals.

Characterisation of scCVD diamond detectors with γ sources

A single-crystal CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) diamond detector was used to measure γ rays in order to assess its performance in terms of energy resolution and linearity. For this purpose, 57Co, 133Ba, 22Na, 207Bi and 137Cs γ sources were used. Electrons scattered by the backward Compton process were detected in the diamond, in coincidence with (backscattered) γs measured in a NaI detector, placed at 180° from the CVD diamond detector with respect to the source. The resulting calibration shows a linear dependence of the charge deposited in the diamond and a resolution of about 24keV FWHM for the energy of the incident γs between 40keV (57Co) and 477keV (137Cs), comparable with the resolution of our electronic chain.

APPLICATION OF THE S3M AND MCNPX CODES IN PARTICLE DETECTOR DEVELOPMENT

Semiconductor detectors can be used to detect neutrons if they are covered by a conversion layer. Some neutrons transfer their kinetic energy to hydrogen via elastic nuclear scattering in the conversion layer, and protons are produced as recoils. These protons enter the sensitive volume of the detector and are detected. In the process of detector development, Monte Carlo computer codes are necessary to simulate the detection process. This paper presents the main features of the S3M code (SRIM Supporting Software Modules) and shows its application potential. Examples are given for the neutron detectors with a conversion layer and for CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) diamond detectors for beam-condition monitors at the LHC (Large Hadron Collider). Special attention is paid to the S3M statistical modules that can be of interest also for other application areas like beam transport, accelerators, ion therapy, etc. The results are generated by MCNPX (Monte Carlo N-Particle eXtended) simulations used to optimize the thickness of the HDPE (high density polyethylene) conversion layer.

Hard X-ray measurement for indirect-driven imploding by chemical vapor deposited diamond detectors

The diamond detector is used to diagnose X-ray and has the advantages of fast response, high sensitivity, large dynamic range, flat response, high breakdown field, and outstanding radiation hardness. The X-ray diamond detector with a metal-diamond-metal structur is developed, in which the optical grade diamond is synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method. Through the calibration of response time on the pulse laser of 8 ps width, the full width at half maximum of the CVD diamond detector is 444 ps, the rise time of the detector is 175 ps, and the lifetime of the carrier is 285 ps. The detectors are used to measure the hard X-ray for the imploding experiment on SGIII-prototype equipment. The results indicate that the measured hard X-ray flux is produced mainly by laser and target imploding, and the peak signal is in direct proportion to the laser energy and in inverse proportion to the CH thickness of target.

New developments in the diagnostics for the fusion products on JET in preparation for ITER (invited)

Notwithstanding the advances of the past decades, significant developments are still needed to satisfactorily diagnose “burning plasmas.” D–T plasmas indeed require a series of additional measurements for the optimization and control of the configuration: the 14 MeV neutrons, the isotopic composition of the main plasma, the helium ash, and the redistribution and losses of the alpha particles. Moreover a burning plasma environment is in general much more hostile for diagnostics than purely deuterium plasmas. Therefore, in addition to the development and refinement of new measuring techniques, technological advances are also indispensable for the proper characterization of the next generation of devices. On JET an integrated program of diagnostic developments, for JET future and in preparation for ITER, has been pursued and many new results are now available. In the field of neutron detection, the neutron spectra are now routinely measured in the energy range of 1–18 MeV by a time of flight spectrometer and they have allowed studying the effects of rf heating on the fast ions. A new analysis method for the interpretation of the neutron cameras measurements has been refined and applied to the data of the last trace tritium campaign (TTE). With regard to technological upgrades, chemical vapor deposition diamond detectors have been qualified both as neutron counters and as neutron spectrometers, with a potential energy resolution of about one percent. The in situ calibration of the neutron diagnostics, in preparation for the operation with the ITER-like wall, is also promoting important technological developments. With regard to the fast particles, for the first time the temperature of the fast particle tails has been obtained with a new high purity Germanium detector measuring the gamma emission spectrum from the plasma. The effects of toroidal Alfven eigenmodes modes and various MHD instabilities on the confinement of the fast particles have been determined with a combination of gamma ray cameras, neutral particle analyzers, scintillator probe, and Faraday cups. From a more technological perspective, various neutron filters have been tested to allow measurement of the gamma ray emission also at high level of neutron yield.