Charitable Behavior Research Articles

Empirical analysis of motives underlying individual contributions to charity

The direct benefits motive underlying charitable contributions has been extensively used as the dominant assumption in charity literature. Indded, it is theoretically simpler to assume independent rather than interdependent utility functions. This study does not justify exclusive assumption of direct benefits motive in theoretical or empirical analysis. Both indirect benefits and Kantian motives are implied by this study. While a clear cut dominance of one motive is not indicated in these results (and not surprising due to the cross-section, aggregate state data used), there is little or no support for the direct benefits motive. The existence of indirect and Kantian motives are indicated by the data. Future research into charitable behavior should take note of these findings, either to develop methodologies able to unambiguously discuss the motives, or to incorporate and provide more than simple acknowledgement of indirect benefits and Kantian motives.

The Development of Charitable Behavior in Elementary School Children

Summary One hundred eighty-seven kindergarten through sixth grade Caucasian boys and girls ranked seven types of candy according to preference, then were given the opportunity to share candy with children described as similar to them, with children described as dissimilar and needy, or with both. Charitable behavior, defined as sharing significantly more with needy recipients, was shown to emerge at about age 7 and to increase significantly to age 10. Results are discussed in relation to age changes in perceptual discrimination, ability to abstract, and internalization of social norms.

Norm Strength and Alms Giving: An Observational Study

Summary This study examines the applicability of normative theory to helping behavior. Temporally defined norms, such as those associated with holidays, are not subject to the criticisms applied to situationally defined norms. The charitable gift giving norms associated with Christmas were assumed to grow stronger as Christmas Day drew nearer. An observational study indicated that the average donation to a Salvation Army kettle increased with temporal nearness to Christmas. Analysis of these data and earlier studies suggests that intensity of charitable behavior may be associated with subject characteristics including strength of felt norms; whereas extensity may be associated with situational features.

A Theory of Social Interactions

This essay incorporates a general treatment of social interactions into the modern theory of consumer demand. Section 1 introduces the topic and explores some of the existing perspectives on social interactions and their importance in the basic structure of wants. In Section 2, various characteristics of different persons are assumed to affect the utility functions of some persons, and the behavioral implications are systematically explored. Section 3 develops further implications and applications in the context of analyzing intra-family relations, charitable behavior, merit goods and multi-persons interactions, and envy and hatred. The variety and significance of these applications is persuasive testimony not only to the importance of social interactions, but also to the feasibility of incorporating them into a rigorous analysis.

Social Constraint as a Determinant of Charitable Behavior

Social psychologists have long recognized the influence of social constraint or evaluarion apprehension, the presence of expectations of significant others in the actor's psychological environment, on attitudes and behavior (Warner & De Fleur, 1969). The present study was designed to investigate the effect of social constraint on behavior, conduct intended to benefit another person at a cost to the actor with little possibility of material reimbursement or reward. In this regard, charity is a widely accepted expectation which has become deeply ingrained in American culture and institutionalized as desirable and appropriate conduct (Leeds, 1763). Therefore, it was hypothesized that high social constraint produces greater charitable behavior than low social constraint. To test this hypothesis, 64 Boston University freshmen were contacted during a regularly scheduled class and were asked in writing for contributions of money to a Biafran relief fund whose avowed purpose was to reduce starvation and provide medical facilities among Biafran civilians. The amount of money contributed by each S was employed as the dependent variable measure. To create a condition of high social constraint. one-half of the Ss were told that a list of contributors would be wsted in the main hallway of their classroom building; to produce low social constraint, one-half of the Ss were told that donors would not be identified individually. Money was collected in individually identified envelopes and donated to the charity specified. A 2 X 2 analysis of variance of charitable behavior (social constraint X sex) yielded a significant main effect for social constraint (P = 5.04, df = 1/60, p < .O5). As hypothesized, Ss under high social constraint were significantly more charitable (M = 9.36) than Ss under low social constraint (M = S.23). In addition, female Ss tended to be more charitable (M = 8.37) than their male counterparts (M = $.27), though at a borderline level of significance (F = 3.73, df = 1/60, p < .lo). Beyond their implications for charitable organizations seeking ro enlist contributors, present results demonstrate the important influence of Durkheim's (1950) conception, long held by social psychologists and sociologists alike, that constraints imposed by the collective expectations of others have a power of coercion over interacting individuals. More specifically, these findings indicate that such individuals are more likely to give monetary assistance when they anticipate being evaluated by their peers. As a related matter, one might investigate the interaction between personality of donor (e.g., social desirability) and social constraint on charitable behavior as well as ocher forms of helping. That females tended to be more charitable than males is consistent with previous data which suggest that the female role is particularly associated with heightened sensitivity co the problems of others (Schopler, 1767).

RECIPROCITY AND GENEROSITY: SOME DETERMINANTS OF SHARING IN CHILDREN

The present experiment was primarily designed to examine the alternative hypotheses of a social responsibility norm or a reciprocity norm as a basic determinant of altruistic behavior. Children were given the opportunity to share tokens with charity or a model after having previously been either the recipient or an observer of charitable behavior or exposed to no such altruism. The effect of praising the model's generosity was also studied. Although children who had been the recipients of generosity shared no more than those who had merely observed sharing, those receiving chips from the model tended to share with her. Those observing her share with charity tended to donate to charity, and those observing no sharing tended not to share. Vicarious reinforcement, however, was not a significant contributory factor. The pattern of results, while disconfirming that reciprocity is a necessary determinant of generosity, demonstrates that observation of a model's altruism can strongly influence the occurrence, amount, and direction of altruistic behavior.

THE ELICITATION AND DURABILITY OF ALTRUISTIC BEHAVIOR IN CHILDREN

ABSTRACTThe effects of enforced rehearsal (ER), model‐observation (O), and model‐observation plus voluntary rehearsal (OVR) on private charitable behavior, both immediately following the experimental manipulations and after an interval of several days, were examined.Obtaining a winning score on a preprogrammed miniature bowling game provided the rationale for furnishing 210 fourth‐ and fifth‐grade children with five‐cent gift certificates. Located near the game was an open charity box. The number of certificates which a subject (S) deposited in the box, while alone, constituted his altruism score. All Ss were given identical game instructions by a male experimenter (E), who also served as the model (M) in those conditions demanding one. Each S was run individually.ER Ss were explicitly instructed to donate one gift certificate each time they won two, and E remained in S's presence while S rehearsed the giving rule twice. All other Ss were given permissive instructions concerning the charity box.OVR Ss observed M donate twice and played the game in M's presence, also winning twice. If OVR Ss donated, the act went unnoticed and unrewarded. O Ss also observed M donate; however, no opportunity was provided to rehearse in M's presence.The results indicate that where the motivational stakes are reasonably high, observation alone is not a sufficient eliciting agent. O Ss failed to evidence significantly more altruism than controls. This finding is interpreted as applying a needed corrective to the modeling research area, imposing a boundary condition on the efficacy of modeling.For girls, OVR resulted in significantly more altruism than obtained among controls. This result held for both sessions, indicating that the OVR effects were powerful enough to bridge an interval of several days. By all available indicants, OVR girls consistently internalized the altruistic norm, which they had observed and then complied with in M's presence, even though the rehearsal had received no external positive sanctions. These results are interpreted as supporting those theoretical formulations which assign motivational properties to internalized standards.The results for OVR boys are directionally the same as for OVR girls; however, they fail to reach statistical significance.ER Ss, evidencing a rule‐obedience component of socialization, engaged in extensive giving during Session 1, giving more than Ss in any other condition While their Session 2 performance dropped markedly, it still remained higher than for all other Ss, except OVR girls. In general, the explicit, though benign, giving instructions had a powerful effect upon ER Ss' behavior; however, some interesting complications were suggested by an internal analysis of the ER condition.In general, girls gave more and were significantly more consistent in their giving than boys.Results from three additional experimental conditions, employed to allow a comparison of Ss who were exposed to the experimental manipulations hut were not tested for altruism until Session 2 with Ss described above, indicate that the experimental effects on altruistic behavior tended to decrease as a function of time regardless of whether S practiced the charitable behavior in E's absence, during Session 1.

TRAINING CHARITY IN CHILDREN1

ABSTRACTOne hundred and sixty first‐ to fourth‐grade girls were given one of 10 training programs designed to produce variations in altruistic behaviors in two distinct donation situations. Children sacrificed the obtaining of M&amp;M candies when they had a warm relationship with the E who made explicit her pleasure at such sacrifice. Neither a warm relationship nor explicit statements of joy by the E alone were more effective than no training in eliciting such charitable behavior. Ss' subsequent anonymous donations were highly correlated with previous training programs. It was concluded that positive interpersonal relationships and explicit statements of pleasure by the socializing agent can provide the basis for the temporary internalization of the norm of self‐sacrifice.