Convective Characteristics Research Articles

Relating Tropical Cyclone Intensification Rate to Precipitation and Convective Features in the Inner Core

Abstract Using Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Microwave Imager observations of global tropical cyclones (TCs) from 1998 to 2013, relationships between TC intensification rate and inner-core convective and precipitation parameters are examined by decoupling the dependency of these parameters on TC intensity and that on TC intensification rate. A total of 16 TC intensity change–intensity categories are categorized based on the initial intensity and 24-h future intensity change. The results show that the TC inner-core mean rain rate, convective intensity, and stratiform rain occurrence, and axisymmetric index of convective intensity increase significantly with TC intensification rate for each TC intensity category. The symmetry of rain rate and stratiform rainfall occurrence also increase significantly with TC intensification rate for each intensity category, except from slowly intensifying (SI) to rapidly intensifying (RI) group when the initial intensity is major hurricane. The RI major hurricanes have significantly more asymmetric rainfall distribution and distribution of stratiform rainfall occurrence than those of SI major hurricanes. For TCs with initial intensity in tropical depression, tropical storm, and major hurricane categories, the RI group has a significantly more asymmetric pattern of shallow precipitation/convection occurrence in the inner core than the SI group, while it has a significantly more symmetric pattern of deep convection occurrence than the SI group. The inner-core size, as quantified by the radius of maximum azimuthal mean rainfall decreases with both TC intensification rate and TC intensity.

Characterizing the Complexity of Subduction Zone Flow With an Ensemble of Multiscale Global Convection Models

AbstractSubduction zones are fundamental features of Earth's mantle convection and plate tectonics, but mantle flow and pressure around slabs are poorly understood because of the lack of direct observational constraints on subsurface flow. To characterize the linkages between slabs and mantle flow, we integrate high‐resolution representations of Earth's lithosphere and slabs into a suite of global mantle convection models to produce physically plausible present‐day flow fields for Earth's mantle. We find that subduction zones containing wide, thick, and long slabs dominate regional mantle flow in the neighboring regions and this flow conforms to patterns predicted by simpler regional subduction models. These subduction zones, such as Kuril‐Japan‐Izu‐Bonin‐Mariana, feature prismatic poloidal flow coupled to the downgoing slab that rotates toward toroidal slab‐parallel flow near the slab edge. However, other subduction zones, such as Sumatra, deviate from this pattern because of the competing influence of other slabs or longer‐wavelength mantle flow, showing that upper mantle flow can link separate subduction zones and how flow at subduction zones is influenced by broader scale mantle flow. We find that the non‐linear dislocation creep reduces the coupling between slab motion and asthenospheric flow and increases the occurrence of non‐ideal flow, in line with inferences derived from seismological constraints on mantle anisotropy.

Space weather with an arc’s ∼2 h trip across the nightside polar cap

Flow channels can extend across the polar cap from the dayside to the nightside auroral oval, where they lead to localized reconnection and auroral oval disturbances. Such flow channels can persist within the polar cap >1½ hours, can move azimuthally with direction controlled by IMF By, and may affect time and location of auroral oval disturbances. We have followed a polar cap arc as it moved duskward from Canada to Alaska for ∼2 h while connected to the oval. Two-dimensional ionospheric flows show an adjacent flow channel that moved westward with the arc and was a distinct feature of polar cap convection that locally impinged upon the outer boundary of the auroral oval. The flow channel’s interaction with the oval appears to have triggered two separate substorms during its trip across western Canada and Alaska, controlling the onset location and contributing to subsequent development of substorm activity within the oval. The first substorm (over Canada) occurred during approximately equatorward polar cap flow, whereas the second substorm (over Alaska) occurred as the polar cap arc and flow channel bent strongly azimuthally and appeared to “lay down” along the poleward boundary. The oval became unusually thin, leading to near contact between the polar cap arc and the brightening onset auroral arc within the oval. These observations illustrate the crucial role of polar cap flow channels in the time, location, and duration of space weather activity, and the importance of the duration and azimuthal motion of flow channels within the nightside polar cap.

Influence of Joule heating and magneto-hydrodynamic on double diffusion mixed convection in a cavity with liquid sodium-potassium alloy and discrete thermosolutal source

Researchers in the biomedical field have focused more on the application of magneto-hydrodynamics in recent years. This study examines the steady double-diffusive mixed convection characteristics in a double-sided cavity with liquid potassium alloy that exhibits a magnetic effect and Joule heating. The investigation analyzes the impact of various parameters, including Hartmann number (0 ≤ Ha ≤ 50), Joule Heating (0 ≤ J ≤ 10.0), Reynolds number (102 ≤ Re ≤ 103), Lewis number (1.0 ≤ Le ≤ 10.0), Buoyancy ratio (−4.0 ≤ N ≤ 4.0), Prandtl number (Pr = 0.054), and Richardson Number (Ri = 1.0). The results are obtained using finite volume-based numerical codes. The findings suggest that the heat and mass transfer rates increase as Re and J increase and decrease when there is an increase in Ha and N. There is a significant effect on both the Joule parameter and magnetic field on fluid and heat flow. When Joule heating is present, increasing the Le results in a 0.627 times increase in heat transfer rate and a 1.722 times increase in mass transfer rate. When Re increases, the average Nusselt number (Nuavg) and average Sherwood number (Shavg) increase 0.81 and 0.11 times, respectively.

Characteristics of intracloud lightning to cloud-to-ground lightning ratio in thunderstorms over Eastern and Southern China

This study investigates the characteristics of intracloud lightning to cloud-to-ground lightning (IC:CG) ratios in eastern and southern China, as well as their relationships to convective intensity. IC:CG is not only examined on the 0.5o grid scale but also uniquely on the thunderstorm scale (convective features), using coincident satellite-based and ground-based lightning observations from 2009 to 2014. The grid-scale IC:CG climatology in eastern and southern China shows a mean value of 3.97, consistent to the worldwide reported values. The IC:CG distribution exhibits two maxima (8–10) over North China Plain (NCP) and the southwest hilly Guangxi Province (GXP), and a low-value band (2–4) located along the Mei-Yu rainband in central China including Sichuan Basin (SCB) and the Yangtze River Basin (YRB). The IC:CG ratios over different regions all maximize in the spring and decrease toward the middle summer. Storm-scale analyses further indicate that the SCB/YRB thunderstorms are weaker but own relatively higher CG frequency, leading to a low IC:CG. This is likely because the SCB/YRB storms are more organized with broader stratiform precipitation. Moreover, IC:CG increases with stronger convective intensity following a power-law relation, and the power is the strongest over GXP and weakest over SCB. In short, our results reveal unique IC:CG characteristics and their relationships with convective intensity for monsoonal thunderstorms, therefore providing insights on thunderstorms' electrification structures under monsoon environments.

Analysis of Convective and Stratiform Precipitation Characteristics in Xinjiang, China Based on GPM Dual‐Frequency Precipitation Radar

The spatial distribution of precipitation in Xinjiang, China, is extremely heterogeneous due to its complex subsurface, and microphysical studies of cloud precipitation over Xinjiang are severely constrained by observational means. The Global Precipitation Measurement (GPM) dual‐frequency precipitation radar (DPR) provides improved three‐dimensional observation data of strong and weak precipitation and performs effective observations in alpine mountain regions. Therefore, this study used GPM/DPR Level‐3 data from January 2015 to December 2022 to analyze the convective and stratiform precipitation characteristics over Xinjiang. The results showed that (1) the range of maximum precipitation reflectivity factors (PRF_max) near the ground and at different heights were larger in summer and maximum PRF_max values appeared in areas along the Altai, Tianshan, and Kunlun Mountains and plains on the respective mountain slopes. In summer, the PRF_max of stratiform (convective) precipitation nearsurface ranged from 24 to 34 dBZ (28–40 dBZ). (2) The two types of precipitation exhibited the highest storm top heights in summer, with convective precipitation having higher values than stratiform precipitation and mountainous areas having higher values than the surrounding basins due to the effects of topographic uplift. (3) The value domains of the PRF, particle mass‐weighted diameter (Dm), and particle number concentration for stratiform (convective) precipitation were more concentrated (wider), that is, PRF: 14–30 dBZ (12–40 dBZ), Dm: 0.9–1.4 mm (0.7–2.1 mm), and the particle concentration: 29–35 (24–39). The height of the center of the probability density of each variable was higher in the three major mountain ranges than in the two major basins owing to the influence of topography. PRF increased and then decreased with height. Convective raindrops were in an active state of high concentration and exhibited a large scale in the lower layers, whereas the particle spectral parameters of stratiform precipitation showed a more concentrated and symmetric distribution and insignificant changes with height.

Evaluation of a Stochastic Mixing Scheme in the Deep Convective Gray Zone Using a Tropical Oceanic Deep Convection Case Study

AbstractA stochastic horizontal subgrid‐scale mixing scheme is evaluated in ensemble simulations of a tropical oceanic deep convection case using a horizontal grid spacing (Δh) of 3 km. The stochastic scheme, which perturbs the horizontal mixing coefficient according to a prescribed spatiotemporal autocorrelation scale, is found to generally increase mesoscale organization and convective intensity relative to a non‐stochastic control simulation. Perturbations applied at relatively short autocorrelation scales induce differences relative to the control that are more systematic than those from perturbations applied at relatively long scales that yield more variable outcomes. A simulation with mixing enhanced by a constant factor of 4 significantly increases mesoscale organization and convective intensity, while turning off horizontal subgrid‐scale mixing decreases both. Total rainfall is modulated by a combination of mesoscale organization, areal coverage of convection, and convective intensity. The stochastic simulations tend to behave more similarly to the constant enhanced mixing simulation owing to greater impacts from enhanced mixing as compared to reduced mixing. The impacts of stochastic mixing are robust, ascertained by comparing the stochastic mixing ensembles with a non‐stochastic mixing ensemble that has grid‐scale noise added to the initial thermodynamic field. Compared to radar observations and a higher resolution Δh = 1 km simulation, stochastic mixing seemingly degrades the simulation performance. These results imply that stochastic mixing produces non‐negligible impacts on convective system properties and evolution but does not lead to an improved representation of convective cloud characteristics in the case studied here.

Assessing RRFS versus HRRR in Predicting Widespread Convective Systems over the Eastern CONUS

Abstract This study provides a comparison of the operational HRRR version 4 and its eventual successor, the experimental Rapid Refresh Forecast System (RRFS) model (summer 2022 version), at predicting the evolution of convective storm characteristics during widespread convective events that occurred primarily over the eastern United States during summer 2022. In total 32 widespread convective events were selected using observations from the MRMS composite reflectivity, which includes an equal number of MCSs, quasi-linear convective systems (QLCSs), clusters, and cellular convection. Each storm system was assessed on four primary characteristics: total storm area, total storm count, storm area ratio (an indicator of mean storm size), and storm size distributions. It was found that the HRRR predictions of total storm area were comparable to MRMS, while the RRFS overpredicted total storm area by 40%–60% depending on forecast lead time. Both models tended to underpredict storm counts particularly during the storm initiation and growth period. This bias in storm counts originates early in the model runs (forecast hour 1) and propagates through the simulation in both models indicating that both miss storm initiation events and/or merge individual storm objects too quickly. Thus, both models end up with mean storm sizes that are much larger than observed (RRFS more so than HRRR). Additional analyses revealed that the storm area and individual storm biases were largest for the clusters and cellular convective modes. These results can serve as a benchmark for assessing future versions of RRFS and will aid model users in interpreting forecast guidance.

MODELING THE INFLUENCE OF NANOPARTICLES AND GYROTACTIC MICROORGANISMS ON NATURAL CONVECTION IN A HEATED SQUARE CAVITY USING ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK (ANN)

The phenomenon of natural convection, which is widely used in nature and engineering applications, is a current issue that can be encountered in every field of daily life. In this study, the natural convection characteristics of a complex liquid containing nanoparticles and gyrotactic microorganisms in a heated square cavity were investigated using artificial neural network approach. The Nusselt number, average Sherwood number of nanoparticles, and average Sherwood number of microorganisms were considered as natural convection parameters and an artificial neural network model was developed to estimate these values. The Lewis number, Brownian motion parameter, thermophoresis parameter, and buoyancy ratio parameter values were defined as input parameters in the network model, which has a multilayer perceptron architecture developed with a total of 24 datasets. There were 10 neurons in the hidden layer of the network model, which has a Bayesian regularization training algorithm. The outputs obtained from the network model were compared with the target values; in addition, the prediction performance of the model was extensively analyzed using various performance parameters. It was seen that the predicted values obtained from the neural network and the target values were in an ideal harmony. On the other hand, the value of the coefficient of determination for the network model was 0.99999% and the mean deviation rates were lower than -0.03%. The results of the study showed that the developed neural network model can predict the natural convection parameters discussed with high accuracy.

Helios and Juliette: Two falsely acclaimed medicanes?

The present work analyzes the synoptic, thermodynamic, and microphysics characteristics of two Mediterranean cyclones that occurred in February–March 2023. The analysis is mainly carried out through the use of passive microwave (PMW) satellite measurements, which allow us to follow the cyclones' evolution and state whether Helios and Juliette can be considered as Mediterranean tropical-like cyclones (i.e., medicanes). Both cyclones show a very similar evolution, with a low-stratospheric warm air anomaly during the development phase, followed by the development of a warm anomaly in the low−/mid-troposphere. This feature is often observed in medicanes (e.g., Qendresa, Zorbas), except for few cases (i.e., Medicane Ianos, which shows a warm core (WC) development clearly driven by diabatic processes without a preliminary warming signal in the lower stratosphere and upper troposphere). The analysis carried out highlights that, while Helios maintains this setting through its whole lifetime, Juliette undergoes tropical transition in the final stage of its evolution. As opposed to most medicane cases, the PMW precipitation microphysics diagnostics shows the predominance of shallow clouds, with almost total absence of ice hydrometeors and deep convection in the proximity of the WC center (i.e., within 100 km radius) for Helios and during the initial stage of Juliette. PMW radiometry provides strong indication that diabatic heating plays a role in the WC development when the onset of deep convection features is identified in the proximity of the Juliette cyclone center. Moreover, the PMW cloud-top height product does not show a closed cloud-free eye for Helios, while it is observed for the final stage of Juliette as often happens during medicanes' mature phase. Therefore, we deem that while Helios can be labeled as a warm seclusion, Juliette can be included in the tropical-like cyclone category.

Adaptive mixed FEM combined with the method of characteristics for stationary convection–diffusion–reaction problems

Adaptive mixed FEM combined with the method of characteristics for stationary convection–diffusion–reaction problems

Investigation of compressible flow under low Mach number in an enclosed square cavity with a novel non-Boussinesq algorithm

Natural convection is widely observed in various scales of natural phenomena and industrial applications. The low Mach number (i.e., low-velocity) natural convection, especially under large temperature differences and significant density and pressure fluctuations, is of great research significance in industrial fields such as nuclear engineering. The Boussinesq approximation based on the incompressible Navier–Stokes (NS) equation is not fully descriptive due to the neglect of coupling effects among temperature, density, and pressure. As for numerical algorithms based on the compressible Navier–Stokes equation, they often suffer from high computational costs and convergence difficulties. In this paper, a novel numerical algorithm based on the decoupled and stabilized Lattice Boltzmann multiphase model with a complete physical description and clear conceptual framework is proposed. It couples the equation of state and the temperature equation, considering the full effects of gravity, pressure, and temperature-dependent density on flow disturbances, and it recovers the complete compressible NS equation. Taking the natural convection in an enclosed cavity as an example, the non-dimensional numbers governing the fluid system are identified by Buckingham π theorem; thus, a new thermal expansion number is proposed to connect the pressure effect. The accuracy and reliability of the numerical algorithm are validated by comparing it with standard benchmarks. On this basis, the proposed algorithm enables a unified physical description from low to high Rayleigh numbers and from small to large temperature differences. By analyzing the flow and heat transfer characteristics of natural convection under different Rayleigh numbers, temperature differences, and thermal expansion numbers, this study reveals the coupled physical mechanisms of low Mach number flow from small to large temperature differences, from low to high Rayleigh numbers and under different thermal expansion numbers.

High-Speed Thermographic Study of Convective Turbulence Characteristics over a Heated Surface

High-Speed Thermographic Study of Convective Turbulence Characteristics over a Heated Surface

Convective characteristics of Fe I lines across the solar disc

Context. Solar convection is visible as a net blueshift of absorption lines, which becomes apparent when observing quiet Sun granulation. This blueshift exhibits variations from the disc centre to the solar limb due to differing projection angles onto the solar atmosphere. Aims. Our goal is to investigate convective Doppler velocities based on observations from the disc centre to the solar limb. Consequently, we aim to improve our understanding of atmospheric hydrodynamics and contribute to the improvement of solar and stellar atmospheric models. Methods. We used resolved quiet-Sun spectra to investigate the convective velocity shifts of more than 1000 Fe I lines across multiple centre-to-limb positions on the solar disc. We determined the Doppler velocities with respect to the line depth. Additionally, we calculated the formation temperature and investigated its correlation with Doppler velocities. Results. The general behaviour of convective line shifts shows a decreasing blueshift as the lines become deeper for all observing positions from the centre to limb. For spectra obtained at the solar limb, even deeper lines exhibit redshifts. We observe a velocity trend for the different observation angles, with a less pronounced convective blueshift towards the solar limb. Convective velocities show a wavelength dependence for each observing angle when analysing on the basis of line depths. We observe a decreasing convective blueshift as the formation temperatures of the lines decrease. The velocity change over temperature ranges proceeds slower towards the solar limb. When investigating Doppler velocities with respect to formation temperature, the disc centre does not exhibit the strongest blueshift.

Strong coupling of flow structure and heat transport in liquid metal thermal convection

A typical feature of thermal convection is the formation of large-scale flow (LSF) structures of the order of system size. How this structure affects global heat transport is an important issue in the study of thermal convection. We present an experimental study of the coupling between the flow structure and heat transport in liquid metal convection with different degrees of spatial confinement, characterized by the aspect ratio $\varGamma$ of the convection cell. Combining measurements in two convection cells with $\varGamma =1.0$ and 0.5, the study shows that a large-scale circulation (LSC) transports ${\sim }35\,\%$ more heat than a twisted LSC. It is further found that when the LSF is in the form of the LSC state, the system is in a fully developed turbulence state with a $Nu\sim Ra^{0.29}$ scaling for the heat transport. However, the twisted LSC state with a heat transport scaling of $Nu\sim Ra^{0.37}$ appears when the system is not in the fully developed turbulence state. Bistability is observed when the system evolves from the twisted-LSC-dominated to the LSC-dominated state.

Fluid flow and heat transfer analysis of a ternary aqueous Fe3O4 ＋ MWCNT ＋ Cu/H2O magnetic nanofluid in an inclined rectangular porous cavity

The natural convective flow and heat transfer efficiency within a cavity have been utilized in various applications, such as solar collectors, heat exchangers, and cooling electronic devices. Ternary nanofluids have higher heat transfer features than nanofluids. Motivated by the aforementioned applications, the current study investigates the natural convective flow and thermal efficiency features of Fe3O4+MWCNT+Cu/H2O electroconductive ternary nanofluid-filled inclined, partially heated rectangular porous cavity under the impacts of an inclined magnetic field, heat source/sink, Joule heating, a resistance porous medium, and viscous dissipation. Additionally, to examine the best heat transfer rate performance of ternary nanofluids, different combinations of aqueous-based ferromagnetic, metallic, and carbon-based nanoparticles’ are also scrutinized. The considered system of equations with suitable initial–boundary conditions is solved by the Marker and Cell method. The results reveal that pertinent parameters such as Darcy number, Rayleigh number, cavity inclination angle, nanoparticle volume fraction, and heat source/sink have significant impacts on the convective flow regime. The investigation reflects that in the presence of a heat source, by augmenting the Fe3O4(33.3%),MWCNT(33.3%), and Cu(33.3%) nanoparticles’ volume fractions from 1% to 5%, the average heat transfer rate is increased by 7.49%. By considering Fe3O4(10%),MWCNT(45%), and Cu(45%) nanoparticles, the average heat transfer rate can be increased up to 8.95%. Fe3O4(10%)+MWCNT(45%)+Cu(45%)/H2O ternary nanofluids deliver the highest, and Fe3O4(45%)+MWCNT(45%)+Cu(10%)/H2O ternary nanofluids produce the lowest rate of heat transfer among the other combinations of ternary nanofluids. This outcome ensures that a suitable combination of nanoparticles extensively improves the heat transfer characteristics of the base fluids.

Study on the characteristics of Si-doped diamond synthesized by different iron-based catalyst systems under high temperature and pressure

This article investigates the effects of different iron based catalysts on the morphology and quality characteristics of diamond single crystals synthesized in high-temperature and high-pressure environments. The results indicated that incorporating silicon impurities led to defects in diamond crystals, increased internal stress in the lattice, and decreased crystal quality. In addition, there are also differences in the synthesis of silicon doped diamonds under different iron based catalyst systems. This manuscript uses optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and Raman spectroscopy to characterize diamond crystals, exploring the influence of catalyst differences on the structure of silicon-doped diamonds. At the same time, simulation analysis was conducted on the convective field of the catalyst in the diamond synthesis chamber, and the convective field characteristics of silicon doped diamond growth under different iron based catalysts were established. The simulation results are consistent with the synthesis experimental work. This work provides a new approach to improve the quality of silicon doped diamond single crystals.

Arrhenius activation energy effect in thermally viscous dissipative flow of micropolar material with gyrotactic microorganisms

The rheology of micropolar material with heat energy transport features is fully progressive, which allows considerable industrial and engineering applications. In this study, numerical analysis is presented to examine the micro-rotation characteristics of magnetized micropolar fluid flow towards the stagnation point region on a porous shrinking surface with gyrotactic microorganisms. To describe the convective energy transport features, Arrehenius activation energy, thermal radiation, Ohmic, and viscous dissipation effects are taken into consideration. The governing equations are converted into ordinary differential equations using appropriate similarity variables. The physical features of flow constraints are displayed and explained for velocity, thermal and solutal distributions, microorganism profile, as well as friction drag, couple stress, and energy transport rate. The results revealed that suction strength contributes to the increment of friction drag, couple stress, and energy transport rate, but the boosted values of the micropolar parameter lower the values of these physical quantities. For a specific range of the shrinking parameter, analysis confirmed the persistence of non-uniqueness solutions. Further, the microorganism profile declines as the bioconvection Lewis number and the bioconvection Peclet number increases. Additionally, according to time-dependent stability analysis, only the upper branch of solutions is physically stable, while the lower branch is not physically.

Heat generation (absorption) in 3D bioconvection flow of Casson nanofluid via a convective heated stretchable surface

In the past few years, the bioconvection phenomenon has become increasingly important in various fields such as genetic systems, manufacturing, biotechnology, and ecological sciences. Bioconvection refers to the large-scale movement of fluid driven by a density gradient resulting from the collective spinning of microorganisms, like bacteria and algae. These self-propelled motile microorganisms increase the fluid's density as they swim in a coordinated direction, giving rise to the bioconvection phenomenon. The current study's goals are to investigate the characteristics of heat generation and absorption in a three-dimensional mixed bioconvection flow of Casson nanofluid inside a stretching cylinder. To analyze the system, a set of transformed nonlinear equations is numerically solved using the Runge-Kutta algorithm. The graphical representation helps explain the impact of different variables on physical properties. Notably, higher values of the Casson parameter are associated with increased viscosity and flow resistance, while a higher bioconvection Rayleigh number leads to elevated skin friction and motile density. Also, Skin friction is decreased by increasing the stretching and mixed convection characteristics. Heat generating processes achieve higher motile densities, Nusselt, and Sherwood amounts than heat absorbing processes.

Effect of magnetohydrodynamics and buoyancy ratio on thermosolutal double diffusion mixed convection in a cavity filled with liquid potassium alloy and Taguchi optimization with a linear regression model

Researchers in the biomedical field have focused more on the application of magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) in recent years. This concept has various uses, such as scanning with laser beams, cancer treatment, targeted drug delivery, and improving image contrast. The increasing demand for smaller clinical devices has prompted researchers to optimize their designs. This study examines the steady double-diffusive mixed convection characteristics and employs Taguchi optimization techniques in a double-sided cavity filled with liquid potassium alloy that exhibits a magnetic effect. The investigation analyzes the impact of various parameters, including Reynolds number (102–103), Lewis number (1.0–10.0), Hartmann number (0–50), buoyancy ratio (−4.0 to 4.0), Richardson Number (1.0), Prandtl number (0.054), and Source length (0.2L). Experiments are designed using a Taguchi method, and numerical codes based on the finite volume technique are employed to obtain the results. The findings suggest that the heat and mass transfer (HMT) rates increase as Re increases and decrease when there is an increase in Ha and N. When Le increases, there is a decrease in heat transfer but an increase in mass transfer. When Ha varied from 0 to 50, and the buoyancy ratio ranged from −2 to 2, the average Nusselt number (Nuavg) decreased by 34.24%, 33.94%, 23.28%, and 7.73%, respectively. Similarly, the average Sherwood number (Shavg) decreased by 18.12%, 26.8%, 47.48%, and 45.27% for the above conditions. Moreover, an empirical correlation was developed for Nuavg and Shavg.