Pore Pressure Changes Research Articles

Removal of atmospheric CO2 by engineered soils in infrastructure projects

The use of crushed basic igneous rock and crushed concrete for enhanced rock weathering and to facilitate pedogenic carbonate precipitation provides a promising method of carbon sequestration. However, many of the controls on precipitation and subsequent effects on soil properties remain poorly understood. In this study, engineered soil plots, with different ratios of concrete or dolerite combined with sand, have been used to investigate relationships between sequestered inorganic carbon and geotechnical properties, over a two-year period. Cone penetration tests with porewater pressure measurements (CPTu) were conducted to determine changes in tip resistance and pore pressure. C and O isotope analysis was carried out to confirm the pedogenic origin of carbonate minerals. TIC analysis shows greater precipitation of pedogenic carbonate in plots containing concrete than those with dolerite, with the highest sequestration values of plots containing each material being equivalent to 33.7 t C ha−1 yr−1 and 17.5 t C ha−1 yr−1, respectively, calculated from extrapolation of results derived from the TIC analysis. TIC content showed reduction or remained unchanged for the top 0.1 m of soil; at a depth of 0.2 m however, for dolerite plots, a pattern of seasonal accumulation and loss of TIC emerged. CPTu tip resistance measurements showed that the presence of carbonates had no observable effect on penetration resistance, and in the case of porewater pressure measurements, carbonate precipitation does not change the permeability of the substrate, and so does not affect drainage. The results of this study indicate that both the addition of dolerite and concrete serve to enhance CO2 removal in soils, that soil temperature appears to be a control on TIC precipitation, and that mineral carbonation in constructed soils does not lead to reduced drainage or an increased risk of flooding.

Colloid Migration as a Reason for Porous Sandstone Permeability Degradation during Coreflooding

During coreflooding under stationary conditions, permeability is determined by the Darcy formula; thus, the apparent permeability is determined, which characterizes the average hydraulic conductivity of the core, but does not take into account the processes occurring at the microlevel. Transient processes during fluid injection regime change are important for understanding the evolution of permeability and underlie such phenomena as permeability degradation and its hysteresis. Our paper presents the coreflooding methodology and the results showing that during changes in injection conditions, the permeability of samples can significantly decrease due to the migration of colloids. In the developed methodology, coreflooding conditions exclude the influence of other factors on permeability, such as creep, the chemical reactions of rocks and fluids, and chemical mobilization of colloids. It has been established that the decrease in permeability occurs only when fluid is injected through the core, which is indirect evidence of pore blockage by colloids. The article also attempts to evaluate the effect of pore pressure on the sensitivity of the porous medium permeability to the amount of injected fluid. A decrease in pore pressure leads to a more intense decrease in permeability during injection, which most likely indicates additional mobilization of colloids, while the narrowing of pore channels does not affect permeability. Analysis of coreflooding results showed that porous media with lower permeability are more sensitive to colloid migration and pore pressure changes. It has also been found that the sensitivity of porous media to colloid migration is greatly affected by the pore pressure gradient, while media with higher permeability are less sensitive to colloid migration.

CO2 plume and pressure monitoring through pressure sensors above the caprock

Commercial-scale development of CO2 geological storage necessitates robust and real-time monitoring methods to track the injected CO2 plume and provide assurance of CO2 storage. Pressure monitoring above the injection zone is a method to detect potential CO2 leaks into overlying formations. We present a generic CO2 storage model with a single injector to predict pressure changes above the caprock due to both fast hydraulic communication and partially undrained loading, the latter often neglected in reservoir simulation. The simulation used a compositional simulator coupled with geomechanics to solve the poroelastic equations in the entire storage complex. The results show that changes of pore pressure above the caprock caused by partially undrained loading reach up to ∼15 kPa within ∼10 days followed by a gradual decay with time. This is about 1% of the pressure increase in the injection zone. Furthermore, the pressure changes above the caprock are closely related to the advance of the CO2 plume. The results also include forward simulations considering the presence of: a fault either with high or low permeability, a poorly isolated abandoned well, a leaky injector, and a second injector. Fluid flow through high permeability paths across the caprock favors a ∼one order of magnitude higher, yet more gradual pressure increase than the base case with a fully covering caprock. Pressure monitoring above the caprock is a feasible technology to track the CO2 plume, requires high precision pressure measurements, and must account for partially undrained poroelastic loading to interpret correctly measured pressure signals in the field.

Stress Drop Variations of Induced Earthquakes near the Dallas–Fort Worth Airport, Texas

Abstract We estimate stress drops for injection-induced earthquakes near the Dallas–Fort Worth Airport in the Fort Worth basin (FWB), Texas, to investigate source properties in response to fluid injection. The stress drops for the Airport sequence show three unique characteristics compared to those estimated for other earthquake sequences in the FWB: (1) stress drops have lower mean and median values; (2) stress drops increase with moment magnitude; and (3) stress drops increase in size over the first 1.5 km in radial distance from the injection point. The low stress drop Airport events occurred shortly after the initiation of injection near a fault within hundreds of meters of the well. Pore pressure perturbations in the Airport area are 1 order of magnitude lower than those from the other sequences, suggesting that absolute pore pressure changes may not be the main factors of stress drop variations. We suggest that the low stress drop events may be related to transition from aseismic slip to seismic rupture previously observed in laboratory and field experiments.

Coupled thermo-hydro-mechanical modeling of frost heave and water migration during artificial freezing of soils for mineshaft sinking

Artificial freezing of water-bearing soil layers composing a sedimentary deposit can induce frost heave and water migration that affect the natural stress–strain state of the soil layers and freezing process. In the present paper, a thermo-hydro-mechanical (THM) model for freezing of water-saturated soil is proposed to study the effects of frost heave and water migration in frozen soils on the formation of a frozen wall and subsequent excavation activity for sinking a vertical shaft. The governing equations of the model are formulated relative to porosity, temperature, and displacement which are considered as primary variables. The relationship between temperature, pore water, and ice pressure in frozen soil is established by the Clausius–Clapeyron equation, whereas the interaction between the stress–strain behavior and changes in porosity and pore pressure is described with the poromechanics theory. Moreover, constitutive relations for additional mechanical deformation are incorporated to describe volumetric expansion of soil during freezing as well as creep strain of soil in the frozen state. The ability of the proposed model to capture the frost heave of frozen soil is demonstrated by a comparison between numerical results and experimental data given by a one-sided freezing test. Also to validate the model in other freezing conditions, a radial freezing experiment is performed. After the validation procedure, the model is applied to numerical simulation of artificial freezing of silt and sand layers for shaft sinking at Petrikov potash mine in Belarus. Comparison of calculated temperature with thermal monitoring data during active freezing stage is presented. Numerical analysis of deformation of unsupported sidewall of a shaft inside the frozen wall is conducted to account for the change in natural stress–strain state of soil layers induced by artificial freezing.

Time-dependent evolution of bearing capacity of driven piles in clays

Analysis of the time-dependent variation in the axial capacity of driven piles is difficult yet critical for geotechnical engineers. In this work, to investigate the short-term evolution of the bearing capacity of driven piles, a two-dimensional finite-element (FE) model was developed using the Abaqus program. Pile installation, soil consolidation and loading were incorporated in an integrated FE model. Changes in the excess pore pressure and the void ratio of the surrounding soil were investigated to evaluate the consolidation mechanism. The findings revealed that excess pore water pressure dissipation was the primary cause of the short-term evolution of the pile's bearing capacity. The dissipation of excess pore water pressure lowered the void ratio and increased the strength and stiffness of the surrounding soil. The effect of the permeability coefficient was also assessed. The permeability coefficient was found to affect the rate of evolution but not its magnitude. A centrifuge model test was used to verify the numerical results. The findings of this study may serve as a guide for improved design and construction of driven piles.

Simulation Analysis of Temperature Effects on the Shear Behavior of Gassy Sand

The gas in gassy sand is enclosed in the pores of soil skeleton mainly in the form of dissolved in water or free gas bubbles, which is considered to be a perfect equilibrium composed of soil particles, pore water, gas, temperature, and overlying pressure. If any of these elements changes, this balance will be destroyed, resulting in disturbance in its mechanical properties. It is generally assumed that the existence of closed gas bubbles will not affect the soil skeleton but increase the compressibility of pore fluid. Assuming that the closed gas bubbles follow Boyle’s law and Henry’s law, the relationship between pore pressure change and volume strain is established. On the basis of the constitutive model which can reflect the temperature characteristics of saturated sand proposed by the author previously, combined with the special characteristics of gassy sand, the effect of temperature effects on the shear behavior of gassy sand is preliminarily explored and analyzed. The results show that under the condition of drained shear, the increase of temperature will increase the shear strength of gassy sand, and the simulation results are in good agreement with the test data. Under the condition of undrained shear, the shear strength of loose gassy sand increases with the increase of temperature, while that of dense gassy sand decreases. Moreover, the larger the gas volume, the more obvious these phenomena tend to be. However, only qualitative simulation analysis is carried out for undrained shear, which needs further verification in combination with relevant tests.

Ground motions induced by pore pressure changes at the Szentes geothermal area, SE Hungary

Excessive thermal water volumes have been extracted from porous sedimentary rocks in the Hungarian part of the Pannonian Basin. Thermal water production in Hungary increased significantly from the early 1970s. Regional-scale exploitation of geothermal reservoirs without re-injection resulted in basin-scale pressure drop in the Upper Pannonian (Upper Miocene) sediments, leading to compaction. This compaction resulted in ground subsidence primarily through poro-elastic coupling.We investigated surface deformation at the Szentes geothermal filed, SE Hungary, where the largest pressure decline occurred. Subsequently, hydraulic head recovery in the western part of the geothermal reservoir was initiated in the mid-1990s. We obtained data from the European Space Agency’s Envisat satellites to estimate the ground motions for the period of November 2002–December 2006. We applied inverse geomechanical modeling to estimate reservoir properties and processes. We constrained the model parameters using the Ensemble Smoother with Multiple Data Assimilation, which allowed us to incorporate large amounts of surface movement observations in a computationally efficient way. Ground movements together with the modeling results show that uplift of the Szentes geothermal field occurred during the observation period. Since no injection wells were operated at Szentes before 2018, and production temperatures remained relatively constant through the entire production period, we explain ground uplift with pore pressure increase due to natural recharge. The estimated decompaction coefficients of the reservoir system characterizing the elastic behavior of the Szentes geothermal reservoir varies between ~ 0.2 × 10–9 and 2 × 10–9 Pa−1. Compaction coefficients of the reservoir system corresponding to the earlier depressurization period, from ~ 1970 to the mid-1990s, may be significantly larger due to the potential inelastic behavior and permanent compaction of clay-rich aquitards. The improved parametrization enables better forecasting of the reservoir behavior and facilitates the assessment of future subsidence scenarios that are helpful for the establishment of a sustainable production scheme.

Effects of parent well spacing on the poroelastic behaviors in the infill zone in shale oil reservoirs: A case study in Jimsar Shale Oil, China

AbstractShale oil resources are usually developed by tightly spaced horizontal wells that are hydraulically fractured. Infill wells are often used to develop the zones not thoroughly produced by previously fractured parent wells, and determining the parent well spacing has become a key issue in the field as it affects the overall fracturing and production efficiency. This study employs a coupled flow and geomechanics model to investigate the poroelastic changes induced by parent well depletion in the infill zone. Based on poromechanics, the temporal and spatial changes in pore pressure, minimum horizontal principal stress, breakdown pressure, and maximum horizontal principal stress orientation are quantified. Pore pressure is used to estimate the remaining hydrocarbon exploitation potential in the infill zone, while minimum horizontal principal stress, breakdown pressure, and maximum horizontal principal stress orientation are used to estimate the difficulties of establishing hydraulic fracture networks in the infill zone. Results show that increasing parent well spacing helps to maintain the pore pressure in the infill zone, while the difficulties of initiating hydraulic fracture networks in the infill zone are slightly increased. Tight well spacing intensifies the infill zone depletion and lowers the infill well development potential, while the breakdown pressure is decreased which can facilitate future infill well fracturing. The poroelastic effect of parent well spacings on the infill zone is not monotonic.

Stress changes caused by exsolution of magmatic fluids within an axisymmetric inclusion

SUMMARY In volcanic regions ascending magma is subject to depressurization and is generally accompanied by exsolution of volatiles. We assume a process in which these volatiles propagate upward across newly fractured and permeable rock layers, bringing a sharp increase of pore pressure and temperature within a thin disc-shaped region (inclusion). Thermo-poro-elastic (TPE) inclusion models provide a mechanism to explain seismicity and deformation induced by p and T changes in absence of new magma emplacement in volcanic contexts. They are also suitable to represent the mechanical effects due to fluid extraction and re-injection in geothermal fields. In the present work analytic solutions are provided for the displacement, strain and stress fields assuming a TPE unbounded medium. Significant deviatoric stress is generated by positive increments of pore pressure and temperature: the stress field is fully deviatoric outside the TPE inclusion, but a strong isotropic stress component is present within, leading to highly heterogeneous faulting mechanisms: if the disc plane is horizontal, thrust faulting mechanisms are favoured within the TPE disc over optimally oriented faults and normal mechanisms above. The model is easily generalized to a vertically thick disc with variable temperature and pore-pressure changes: then, an extensional environment can be obtained even within the TPE inclusion assuming upward decreasing of pore pressure and temperature changes. The supplied analytical solution may be used to model near-field TPE inclusion effects and to validate more complex numerical modelling.

The Viscoelastic Solution to Geertsma’s Subsidence Problem

Abstract This paper presents the viscoelastic analytical solution for stress and displacement due to prescribed time-varying changes in the pore fluid pressure of a disk-shaped inclusion embedded within a semi-infinite, viscoelastic medium. The correspondence principle of viscoelasticity, along with Hankel–Fourier and Laplace transforms, is used to derive the solution. The instantaneous viscoelastic solution, corresponding to the response immediately after the inclusion pore pressure change, recovers the elastic solution to the same problem (Geertsma 1973). Results are presented for fractional Maxwell and Burgers models of viscoelasticity after being applied to a set of experimental data from creep tests on shale. Solution results are demonstrated and discussed for the cases of constant inclusion depletion, as well as delayed injection of fluid into a previously depleted inclusion.

Methane emissions and dynamics from adjacent coal seams in a high permeability multi-seam mining environment

Reliable prediction of methane emission sources and dynamics from adjacent strata of longwall coal mining is critical for developing efficient methane capture designs to maximise emission reduction and improve mining safety. This paper presents an integrated field monitoring study that has resulted in many new insights into mine methane emissions and dynamics in a relatively high permeability, multi-seam mining environment. The field study comprised of measuring gas content pre- and post-mining at three different locations across the longwall panel, and continuous monitoring of seam pore pressure using fibre optic piezometers.The gas content profile pre- and post-mining enabled delineation of the gas emission zone. The lateral extent of the gas emission zone was found to be far beyond the goaf vicinity, which contradicts the baseline assumption of the conventional Flugge model used at the mine. Significant discrepancies were also found in the degree of gas emission between the measurement and the predictive modelling. For instance, the coal seam 62 m below the mining seam had no discernible gas released, whereas the Flugge model predicts a 24% gas emission. The causes underlying these discrepancies were analysed, and the methods to improve gas emission prediction were discussed. The monitored pore pressure change in different seams validates the gas content measurement results, and is also invaluable for characterising gas emission dynamics from seams in the roof and floor. Monitoring seam pore pressure change can therefore be an effective means to guide methane capture planning and design.

Fast Screening Tool for Assessing the Impact of Poro-Mechanics on Fractured Reservoirs Using Dual-Porosity Flow Diagnostics

Summary Accounting for poro-mechanical effects in full-field reservoir simulation studies and uncertainty quantification workflows is still limited, mainly because of their high computational cost. We introduce a new approach that couples hydrodynamics and poro-mechanics with dual-porosity flow diagnostics to analyze how poro-mechanics could affect reservoir dynamics in naturally fractured reservoirs without significantly increasing computational overhead. Our new poro-mechanically informed dual-porosity flow diagnostics account for steady-state and single-phase flow conditions in the fractured medium while the fracture-matrix fluid exchange is approximated using a physics-based transfer rate coefficient, which models two-phase flow using an analytical solution for spontaneous imbibition or gravity drainage. The deformation of the system is described by the dual-porosity poro-elastic theory, which is based on mixture theory and micromechanics to compute the effective stresses and strains of the rock matrix and fractures. The solutions to the fluid flow and rock deformation equations are coupled sequentially. The governing equations for fluid flow are discretized using a finite-volume method with two-point flux-approximation while the governing equations for poro-mechanics are discretized using the virtual element method. The solution of the coupled system considers stress-dependent permeabilities for fractures and matrix. Our framework is implemented in the open-source MATLAB Reservoir Simulation Toolbox (MRST). We present a case study using a fractured carbonate reservoir analog to illustrate the integration of poro-mechanics within the dual-porosity flow diagnostics framework. The extended flow diagnostics calculations enable us to quickly screen how the dynamics in fractured reservoirs (e.g., reservoir connectivity, sweep efficiency, and fracture-matrix transfer rates) are affected by the complex interactions between poro-mechanics and fluid flow where changes in pore pressure and effective stress modify petrophysical properties and hence affect reservoir dynamics. Because of the steady-state nature of the calculations and the effective coupling strategy, these calculations do not incur significant computational overheads. They provide an efficient complement to traditional reservoir simulation and uncertainty quantification workflows because they enable us to assess a broader range of reservoir uncertainties (e.g., geological, petrophysical, and hydromechanical uncertainties). The capability of studying a much broader range of uncertainties allows the comparison and ranking from a large ensemble of reservoir models and select individual candidates for more detailed full-physics reservoir simulation studies without compromising on assessing the range of uncertainties inherent to fractured reservoirs.

Geomechanical effects of co2 storage in geological structures: two case studies

Storage of CO2 in subsurface can assist to mitigate CO2 emission without extensively interfering with industrial activity and development. The main reason for geological storage to trap CO2 underground for a long time. However, the injection of CO2 may compromise the sealing characteristics of the caprock and, consequently, the containment of the underground CO2 storage unit as well. For instance, the injection of CO2 into a reservoir resulted in pore pressure and temperature changes leading to deformation and stress changes in the injection target and the rocks that surround it. These changes can influence the hydraulic integrity of the geological storage. The potential hazards could then impose different environmental, health, safety, and economic risks. Therefore, the geomechanical assessment of caprock integrity is critical for the storage of carbon dioxide. This research reviewed two different cases of underground CO2 storage in Canada and the workflows used for the assessment of geomechanical effects of CO2 injection on caprock integrity. It reviewed the processes of data collection, geomechanical characterization, and fluid flow modeling. These reviews highlighted the significance of geomechanical characterization and the fact that it is faced with significance challenges that could be addressed by data integration and geostatistical analysis. These reviewed studies implemented both analytical and numerical geomechanical models. While analytical models seem to be great choices for preliminary geomechanical analysis, numerical models are also necessary for a more detailed analysis. Â

3D Field-Scale Geomechanical Modeling of Potential CO2 Storage Site Smeaheia, Offshore Norway

Injection-induced rock mechanical failure risks are critical in CO2 sequestration, and thus there is a need to evaluate these occurrences to ensure safe and reliable subsurface storage. A stress–strain-based numerical simulation can reveal the potential mechanical risks of any CO2 sites. This study investigated the hydromechanical effect on geomechanical failure due to injection-induced stress and pore pressure changes in the prospective CO2 storage site Smeaheia, offshore Norway. An inverted-seismic-property-driven 3D field-scale geomechanical model was carried out in the Smeaheia area to evaluate the rock failure and deformation risks in various pressure-build-up scenarios. A one-way coupling between the before- and after-injection pressure scenarios of nine different models has been iterated using the finite element method. The effect of the sensitivity of total pore volume and pore compressibility on rock mechanical deformation is also evaluated. Although various models illustrated comparative variability on failure potential, no model predicted caprock failure or fracture based on the Mohr–Coulomb failure envelope. Moreover, the lateral mechanical failure variation among different locations indicated the possibility to identify a safer injection point with less chances of leakage. In addition, the pore volume and pore compressibility significantly influence the mechanical behavior of the reservoir and caprock rocks. Although this analysis could predict better injection locations based on geomechanical behavior, a fluid simulation model needs to be simulated for assessing lateral and vertical plume migration before making an injection decision.

Geomechanische Auswirkungen saisonaler Wärmespeicherung in stillgelegten Bergwerken

AbstractFor the transition to sustainable heat sources, storage infrastructure is required to provide heat evenly throughout the year. Solar heat is typically produced in the summer and can be stored in underground heat reservoirs for the winter. Flooded coal mines, e.g., are potential heat reservoirs. To assess whether the geomechanical integrity of a colliery and the surrounding rock mass are affected by seasonally stored heat, a numerical case study was performed at ”Zeche Dannenbaum“ in the Ruhr valley, Germany. During summer, hot water was injected into level 8 of the colliery while cold water was produced from level 4. This process was reversed in winter. Detailed subsurface models of the colliery, rock mass and tectonic faults were used to numerically simulate the cyclical changes in pore pressure and temperature and the resulting stress changes. The displacement of the land surface, and geomechanically critical regions in the rock mass were derived. Moreover, the reactivation potential of the fault zones and the risk of induced seismicity were evaluated. The high injection temperatures induce strong thermoelastic effects, which could potentially lead to fault reactivation and induced seismicity. Surface displacements, however, are negligeable.

Decade-long monitoring of seismic velocity changes at the Irpinia fault system (southern Italy) reveals pore pressure pulsations

Several studies have monitored crustal seismic velocity changes and attempted to relate them to the stress state and physical properties in volume embedding fault systems. The aim is to provide constraints on fault system dynamics and earthquake triggering mechanisms. Here, we reconstruct the spatiotemporal (4D) seismic velocity images of volume embedding the Irpinia fault system (IFS, South Italy), which originated the 1980 Ms 6.9 multi-segmented ruptures. By inverting data from more than ten years of continuous seismicity monitoring, we retrieved time-constant velocity anomalies, whose shapes correlate well with crustal lithology, while time-changing (up to 20%) velocity anomalies are mapped in the central region. Here, the Vp-to-Vs changes at depths of 1–5 km and 8–12 km correlate well with groundwater recharge and geodetic displacement during the same time interval. This correlation provides evidence for the existence of pulsating, pore pressure changes induced by groundwater recharge processes in a deep volume (8–12 km of depth), fractured and saturated with a predominant gas phase (likely CO2). We suggest that tomographic measurements of the Vp-to-Vs spatiotemporal changes are a suitable proxy to track the pore pressure evolution at depth in highly sensitive regions of fault systems.

Multiphysics coupling study of near-wellbore and reservoir models in ultra-deep natural gas reservoirs

Understanding the changes of the near-wellbore pore pressure associated with the reservoir depletion is greatly significant for the development of ultra-deep natural gas reservoirs. However, there is still a great challenge for the fluid flow and geomechanics in the reservoir depletion. In this study, a fully coupled model was developed to simulate the near-wellbore and reservoir physics caused by pore pressure in ultra-deep natural gas reservoirs. The stress-dependent porosity and permeability models as well as geomechanics deformation induced by pore pressure were considered in this model, and the COMSOL Multiphysics was used to implement and solve the problem. The numerical model was validated by the reservoir depletion from Dabei gas field in China, and the effects of reservoir properties and production parameters on gas production, near-wellbore pore pressure and permeability evolution were discussed. The results show that the gas production rate increases nonlinearly with the increase in porosity, permeability and Young’s modulus. The lower reservoir porosity will result in the greater near-wellbore pore pressure and the larger rock deformation. The permeability changes have little effect on geomechanics deformation while it affects greatly the gas production rate in the reservoir depletion. With the increase in the gas production rate, the near-wellbore pore pressure and permeability decrease rapidly and tend to balance with time. The reservoir rocks with higher deformation capacity will cause the greater near-wellbore pore pressure.

Hydro-mechanical coupling of granite with micro-defects: Insights into underground energy storage

In order to revel the hydro-mechanical coupling characteristics of granite at various pore pressures and confining pressures. The spatial micro-pore structure before and after the failure of granite is extracted by high-precision CT scanning system. The results show that the UCS of the damaged granite decreases with the increase of pore pressure under certain confining pressure. The sensitivity of UCS of granite to the change of pore pressure is lower than that of confining pressure. In the rock compaction stage, the permeability decreases slightly, while it increases slowly in the elastic and plastic stages. From the perspective of microscopic fracture structure, the number of roar channels increased by 134 times, the total length increased by nearly 100 times, the average equivalent radius was expanded to 1.64 times, and the permeability increased by 443 times before and after rock failure. The permeability characteristics of granite are most affected by pore-throat structure.

3D Fully Coupled Modeling of Pore Pressure and Poroelastic Stress Changes from Multi-Decadal, Multi-Zone Saltwater Disposal and Implications for Induced Seismicity: An Example from the Midland Basin

3D Fully Coupled Modeling of Pore Pressure and Poroelastic Stress Changes from Multi-Decadal, Multi-Zone Saltwater Disposal and Implications for Induced Seismicity: An Example from the Midland Basin