Phase Change Research Articles

Synergistic Effects of Heated Walnut Shell Powder and Reduced Graphene Oxide in Paraffin Wax Composites for Marine Thermal Applications

The study focuses on creating and analyzing paraffin wax composites enriched with heated walnut shell powder and reduced graphene oxide nanoparticles. Experimental procedures include careful blending of materials to form homogeneous mixtures, followed by analysis using techniques such as thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The composites show improved thermal properties compared to pure paraffin wax, with increased melting temperatures, heat of fusion, and thermal conductivity. The study also examines density and thermal diffusivity, providing insights into thermal behavior. Additionally, it ensures the corrosion resistance of nano-enhanced bio-based phase change materials (PCMs) for marine engineering through thorough material selection, corrosion testing, and long-term exposure studies simulating seawater conditions. The study evaluates environmental impacts, toxicity, and compliance with standards and proposes mitigation strategies like protective coatings and encapsulation techniques. Overall, the research contributes to developing environmentally sustainable PCM materials for marine applications and offers insights into their thermal behavior for thermal energy storage and management.

Enhancement of Thermo-Physical Properties of Form-Stable Nano-Enhanced Phase Change Materials: Advancing Maritime Sustainability

This paper explores the application of novel, form-stable eutectic mixtures in thermal energy storage systems for maritime environments. These advanced materials present a significant leap forward, addressing critical challenges faced by conventional phase change materials (PCMs) in marine environments. The stability, eliminating leakage and fluidity issues encountered with liquid PCMs are ensured by incorporating 2-hydroxypropyl ether cellulose (HPEC) as a gelling agent. Additionally, the thermal properties and heat transfer capacities were significantly enhanced, and eventually, overall system efficiency improved by including nano-graphene platelets (NGPs). Notably, NGPs effectively suppress supercooling, minimizing energy losses and guaranteeing consistent performance at elevated temperatures. Further, the eutectic mixture demonstrates exceptional durability through an accelerated thermal reliability test, guaranteeing optimal performance over a projected seventy-year lifespan. This enhanced thermal performance, and enduring stability combination establishes the form-stable eutectic mixture with NGPs as an up-and-coming solution for diverse maritime applications requiring efficient and reliable thermal energy storage. This research provides a compelling case for implementing form-stable eutectic mixtures with NGPs in maritime thermal energy storage systems. Its superior performance and sustainability offer significant advantages for diverse shipboard and offshore applications, contributing to improved energy efficiency, environmental sustainability, and operational resilience within the maritime sector.

Experimental Investigation of Tailoring Functionalized Carbon-Based Nano Additives Infused Phase Change Material for Enhanced Thermal Energy Storage

The advancement of phase change materials (PCMs) as potential thermal energy storage (TES) materials for building envelopes holds promise for efficient energy utilization. However, the PCMs have a major drawback during energy storage, which is lower thermal conductivity, leading to inadequate heat transfer performance and energy storage density. The foremost objective is to formulate a nanocomposite by dispersing functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes in salt hydrate PCM with the presence of surfactant. A two-step technique is employed to formulate the nanocomposites with different weight concentrations (0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8%) of carbon-based nanoparticles and these nanocomposites are thoroughly characterized to explore the thermophysical properties. Resulting the nanocomposite demonstrates a significant improvement in thermal conductivity, increasing by 91.45%, which can be attributed to the well-developed thermal networks with the PCM matrix. The nanocomposite samples exhibit extreme thermal stability up to 477 °C with a slight enhancement of 4.6%. Optical investigations further confirmed that the transmissibility of PCM decreased to 8.3% from 62.8%, indicating an enhanced absorption capability due to the dark color nature of the nanoparticles. Moreover, the formulated nanocomposite demonstrated both chemical and thermal stability, with negligible changes in melting enthalpy even after 300 cycles of heating and cooling operations. Additionally, a numerical simulation analysis of 2D heat transfer was performed using Energy 2D software to demonstrate the efficacy of thermal conductivity in heat transfer. The thermally energized nanocomposite is suitable for medium-temperature TES applications such as photovoltaic thermal systems, building applications, textiles, electronic cooling, and desalination systems.

Characterizations and Energy Analysis of Hydroxyl Group Functionalized Graphene (Nanomaterial) Mixed with Paraffin Wax (Polymer Pcm) as Thermal Energy Storage Materials And Applications

This work comprised of Paraffin wax as phase change material mixed/doped with functionalized graphene (hydroxyl group) for countering the poor thermal conductivity of the pristine phase change material. Firstly, Experiments were conducted on Thermal energy storage system during charging (melting) of the doped PCM. The main outcomes of these experiments were that as the volume concentrations of doped PCM and flow rate of the heat transfer fluid (HTF) were increased the charging time decreases along with increments in PCM temperature and accumulated energies. In case of OH functionalized graphene mixed with paraffin wax the charging time decreases by 38.4% to 84.61% for the HTF flow rate 25 ml/s over pure paraffin wax. Secondly, the advanced functional materials i.e., Paraffin wax mixed with functionalized hydroxyl group graphene was characterized by FTIR, XRD, TGA, DSC and FESEM, . The latent heat of melting obtained was 179.36 J/g for 1% graphene doping by DSC.

Experimental study of a novel Radiative cooling-Dual phase change material roof under hot summer and warm winter climate

In hot summer and warm winter climates, phase change materials (PCMs), with their ability to absorb and store thermal energy, can effectively reduce indoor temperature fluctuations and lower cooling loads when applied to roofs. Therefore, this study proposes a novel Radiative cooling-Dual phase change material (RC-DPCM) roof and conducts experimental research on its regulation of indoor and outdoor thermal environments. This energy-efficient roof integrates radiative sky cooling with PCM latent heat storage technologies within a compact building envelope. The innovative dual-PCM configuration can store heat from both indoor sources and outdoor solar radiation during the day through integrated PCM layers. At night, radiative cooling materials emit heat to the deep universe, helping the PCM layers complete solidification. The thermal performance of the RC-DPCM roof was tested in hot summer and warm winter climates compared to other roof designs: a single layer of aluminum (AL) roof, the Aluminum-Thermal insulation (AL-TH) roof, the Radiative cooling (RC) roof, the Radiative cooling-Outside phase change materials (RC-OPCM) roof, and the Radiative cooling-Inside phase change materials (RC-IPCM) roof. Results showed that the RC-DPCM roof significantly improved indoor thermal comfort and efficiency. Compared with the AL roof, the RC-DPCM roof reduced the average indoor temperature by 1.13 °C (or 2.49 °C during working hours) and continuously dissipated heat from the indoor environment to the ambient environment, reducing the cooling load. Additionally, the RC-DPCM roof achieved a 172.9 % average cooling load reduction during working hours, outperforming other roofs, thus demonstrating its potential as an innovative solution for sustainable and energy-efficient buildings. The RC-DPCM roof effectively reduced peak indoor temperatures and cooling load, demonstrating its potential as an innovative solution for sustainable and energy-efficient buildings.

Synergistic enhancement of metal–organic framework-derived hierarchical porous materials towards photothermal conversion and storage properties of phase change materials

The design and synthesis of composite phase change materials that integrate photothermal conversion and latent heat storage have guiding significance for the efficient development and utilisation of solar energy. In this study, taking into consideration the advantages of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) with adjustable structure and properties, HKUST-1-derived CuO/hierarchical porous carbon materials were employed and integrated with palmitic acid (PA) to synthesise composite phase change materials that exhibit exceptional comprehensive properties. The effects of different carbonation temperatures on HKUST-1-derived CuO/hierarchical porous carbon were analysed through a series of characterisations. The hierarchical porous structure in the blended system offers abundant pore structure and high specific surface area to prevent leakage of phase change materials. Composite phase change materials can maintain good shape stability and excellent thermal energy storage capacity. The thermal storage efficiency and photothermal conversion efficiency are 98.28% and 81.83%, respectively. Meanwhile, the thermal conductivity of the composite phase change material is 3.65 times that of pure PA. In conclusion, the MOFs derivative-based composite phase change materials designed in this study exhibited potential for thermal energy storage and can be applied to the field of solar energy conversion and storage systems.

Graphene nanoplatelets-infused binary eutectic phase change materials for enhanced thermal energy storage

Energy depletion for the thermal regulation of buildings is a major global concern. Herein, we develop a binary eutectic phase change material (EPCM) consisting of sodium sulphate decahydrate (SSD) and sodium phosphate dibasic dodecahydrate (SPDD) that were modified using borax, carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), and graphene nanoplatelets (GNP). In the EPCM, SSD, and SPDD were blended at a proportion of 62:38 to obtain a eutectic point of 27.8 °C with a melting enthalpy of 202 J/g. Borax was a nucleating additive to lessen the issue of supercooling, CMC was a thickening agent to ensure phase stability, and GNP was added as a nanomaterial to enhance the thermal behavior of EPCM. Microtopography, chemical stability, optical transmissibility and absorptivity, phase transition characteristic, thermal conductivity, energy storage potential, degree of supercooling, and thermal stability over 200 thermal cycles were tested and determined. Using scanning electron microscopy, the GNP microstructure and its interaction with EPCM are visualized to present the dispersion and formation of the thermal network. The nanocomposite EPCM also has chemical stability, which is aided by a 571% increase in optical absorbance and an 83.8% decrease in transmissibility. With GNP as a nanomaterial, owing to the well-developed thermal network, we achieve a 106% increment in thermal conductance from 0.464 W/m⋅K to 0.956 W/m⋅K; likewise, GNP acts as a conducting binder and enhances the intermolecular interaction leading to an increase in melting enthalpy from 202.4 J/g to 226 J/g. Finally, a numerical simulation of EPCM heating a thermic fluid flowing within a concentric tube with focus on the temperature contour is conducted for elaborating the potential of PCM towards TES systems.

Experimental Investigation and Numerical Simulation of Carboxylic (COOH) Group Functionalized Graphene-Based Paraffin Wax as Phase Change Material in a Thermal Energy Storage System

This study analyses the melting time and liquid fraction during melting of carboxylic (COOH) group functionalized Graphene-based paraffin wax (PW) Phase Change Material (PCM) inside a thermal energy storage system (TESS) both experimentally and numerically (using Ansys Workbench 15.0 academic version). Its performance in terms of time taken for melting during charging/melting analysis is compared numerically and experimentally which leads to a good conformance and validates this research. The average error in the melting times of experimental and numerical result is found to be 1.9 %, 2.0 % and 2.6 % for three different flowrates which shows a very good agreement between experimental and numerical simulation results.

Multilevel phase transition behavior of In2Se3-doped with Sb materials based on flexible polyimide substrate

The In2Se3-doped Sb phase change material was deposited onto a polyimide substrate using magnetron sputtering technique. A comprehensive investigation was conducted on the thermal stability, bending resistance, crystal structure, and electrical properties of this material. The findings revealed its remarkable thermal stability, data retention, and bending resilience, particularly in the In0.05Se0.19Sb0.76 film, which exhibited minimal resistance drift. The aging test confirmed the stability of the electronic structure in In2Se3-doped Sb, accompanied by reduced structural relaxation. Notably, no new crystalline phase emerged in In0.05Se0.19Sb0.76 film, but stronger In-Sb bonds were formed. Raman spectroscopy and bending tests further indicated that deformation had minimal impact on the film’s structure and surface. Utilizing the In0.05Se0.19Sb0.76 material and polyimide substrate, a flexible phase change memory device demonstrated reliable SET/RESET operations even after bending, offering three stable resistance states for multilevel storage. This enhanced the storage density, making In2Se3-doped Sb material a promising flexible phase change material with excellent performance and vast potential for applications in phase change storage, such as electronic fabrics and flexible smart wearable electronics.

Evolution of the Pd0/PdO phase change on Pd-MCM-41 catalyst for efficient production of furfural from the fast pyrolysis of cellulose

Furfural (C5H4O2) is a high-value platform chemical that is traditionally derived from the solvolysis of hemicellulose. However, its production from pyrolysis is far from satisfactory. In particular, the abundant cellulose within lignocellulosic biomass has yet to be successfully upgraded into furfural. Consequently, the overall yield of furfural from a lignocellulosic biomass is extremely low. Herein, we report a facile heterogeneous catalyst prepared from a simple impregnation of palladium (Pd) onto MCM-41 mesoporous silica. The catalyst demonstrated a remarkably high selectivity of ∼58.5% and yield of ∼32.5 wt% for furfural from the fast pyrolysis of wet cellulose. It was also confirmed to reach a selectivity of 65.4% and yield of 44.5 wt% for furfural from wet xylan, as well as a furfural yield of 23.9 wt% from wet sugarcane bagasse. All these values are superior to the literature reports. Through advanced characterisation including in-situ synchrotron high-temperature XRD and DRIFTS measurement, the loading of Pd in a tiny quantity of 1 mol% was confirmed to be sufficient in enhancing the surface hydrophilicity of the MCM-41 support, promoting the adsorption of reactants especially the formaldehyde group (HCHO), as well as the desorption of the target product furfural. In addition, Pd oxide (i.e., Pd2+O) was confirmed to be the catalytic active site. However, it was partly reduced into metallic Pd0 during the cellulose pyrolysis, due to the preferred reduction by adsorbed formaldehyde group and other reductants including H2 and CO in the vicinity of the PdO sites on the Pd-O-Si interface. Nevertheless, the catalyst was proven to retain the memory of its initial state after combustive regeneration in air, having oxidation state of Pd, particle size, and dispersion degree being reversed to its original construction. Accordingly, its activity remained stable upon cyclic testing. All these results demonstrate a high practical viability of this heterogenous catalyst for the valorisation of cellulose-rich biomass, an otherwise abundant crop waste across the world.

Carbon-based phase change composites with directional high thermal conductivity for interface thermal management

Phase change materials (PCMs) can provide a buffer platform for thermal management systems to deal with thermal runaway problems. However, prompt heat dissipation and cost-effective thermal regulation in desired devices are still limited by insufficient thermal transport behavior and liquid leakage of PCMs. Here, we report a facile strategy to develop high-power-density device by carbon-based phase change composites (PCCs) with directional high thermal conductivity. The synergistic effect of self-assembled aligned graphite nanoplatelets (GNPs) inside the resultant PCCs on thermal transport and structural reinforcement enable the PCCs to show high thermal conductivity (in-plane KPCCs of up to 32.86 W m−1 K−1), large heat storage density (158.2–248.3 J g−1), thermal cycling stability, and leakage-proof properties. Furthermore, a PCC-based high-power-density energy device is demonstrated for the tunable thermal regulation by coordinating the orientation of GNPs heat conduction skeleton inside the PCCs with the thermal transport direction of device. The PCC-based module maintains a suitable temperature range of 149–151 °C under various operating conditions and exhibits a decrease of ∼10 °C in the surface peak temperature of power device, showing excellent temperature control performance. Our work holds promising application prospects in the engineering scalable functional PCCs for thermal regulation of electronics and interface thermal management.

Solar salt encapsulated into 3D printed activated carbon/alumina supports for thermal energy storage applications

The encapsulation of phase change materials (PCMs) into additive manufactured porous supports is attracting great interest for developing thermal energy storage (TES) materials with improved energy performance. Here, highly porous (86 %) self-supported 3D activated carbon/alumina supports are fabricated by direct ink writing (DIW) and, then, infiltrated with solar salt, a highly corrosive PCM with a melting temperature around 220 °C commonly employed in concentrated solar power plants. This novel, robust, chemically compatible, and lightweight infiltrated 3DTES exhibits good thermal energy storage efficiency (70 %) and thermal stability, high energy storage density (381 J g−1), and avoids the liquid leakage of the molten salt. Besides, the 3D activated carbon/alumina support promotes a better ability to absorb solar energy (79 %) and enhances the thermal conductivity of the solar salt (up to 64 %). These results validate the use of DIW for manufacturing innovative TES with an enhanced energy storage behaviour.

Pressure-induced phase transitions of ZrAl2 from first-principles calculations

Although ZrAl2 has been extensively studied, its structural features and properties under high pressures remain unclear. Using the CALYPSO structural search method combined with first-principles calculations, we investigated the structural evolution and mechanical stability of ZrAl2 at high pressures. Our research reveals that at 198 GPa, ZrAl2 undergoes a phase transition from the P63/mmc phase to the Pmmm phase. This transition results in a volume collapse of 2.1%, indicating a first-order phase change. A comprehensive analysis of the elastic constants and phonon spectra confirms the structural stability of four new phases of ZrAl2. Our research findings provide a comprehensive view of the structural evolution of ZrAl2 under high pressure. This valuable information enhances the understanding of the physical and chemical properties of C14-type ZrAl2 when subjected to high-pressure conditions.

Effects of microencapsulated phase change materials on the thermal performance of gypsum board

Microencapsulated phase change materials (MePCMs) were fabricated via sol–gel synthesis, with nano-SiO2 acting as shell, lauric acid (LA) and myristic acid (MA) binary eutectic mixture as core materials, and then MePCMs were incorporated in gypsum. The thermal performances of LA-MA@nano-SiO2 MePCM as well as MePCM based gypsum board were systematically analyzed. The results show that the absorbed LA-MA is distributed uniformly in the pores and shows optimum homogenous morphology, which can significantly improve the thermal stability and durability. The heat absorption and release rate of the LA-MA/nano-SiO2 MePCM is enhanced compared with LA-MA eutectic mixture. When the core–shell ratio was 1:1, the encapsulation rate of LA-MA/nano-SiO2 MePCM is the highest, and relatively the melting heat as well as the solidification heat is the highest, with the leakage rate of LA-MA/nano-SiO2 MePCM controlled under less than 6 % after 200 times hot and cold cycle. Incorporating LA-MA@nano-SiO2 MePCM into gypsum acts properly in temperature control and postpones the temperature fluctuation.

3D transient numerical analysis of PCM dendritic cylindrical heat sinks designed by constructal theory

The phase change material (PCM) heat sink represents an important cooling tool for many applications. The presence of a heat sink in devices requires additional space to occupy it. This led to modeling this space to obtain the highest thermal performance with the smallest size. Among the modern modeling methods is constructal theory. This work presents a numerical modeling of the performance of cylindrical phase change material heat sinks with branched heat transfer fluid tubes in the manner of arterial and venous according to constructal theory. The aim of numerical simulations is to demonstrate the effect of growth in design by increasing the number of branches on thermal performance and melting time and the extent to which this is reflected in pressure drops. Several branching configurations are studied for comparison purpose. The governing continuity, momentum and energy equations were solved using the computational fluid dynamics method. Three-dimensional transient simulations of the melting process of phase change materials were performed using an enthalpy and porosity model. Four combinations of constructal dendritic tubes were considered. The results show that the proposed dendritic PCM heat sink significantly reduces the melting time of PCM compared to the traditional heat sink consisting of a shell and single tube up to 69.1 %. The drop in heat transfer fluid temperature at the outlet decreased by up to 51.7 %. The results proved also the heat transfer enhancement is governed with pressure drop increase because of changing branches configuration. Finally, this paper demonstrated the ability of constructal theory to provide promising solutions for cylindrical heat sinks of phase change materials in various applications.

Melting performance improvement of phase change materials with thermal energy storage unit using nanoparticles

The world is facing two major problems today, as imbalance of supply and demand of the energy and the continues deterioration of the environment. Latent thermal energy storage with phase change material plays a vital rule in resolving this problem. The current study investigates the numerical simulation of phase change material with novel fins configuration in the triplex-tube storage unit. But their low thermal conductivity is the main problem by affecting the energy storage. To enhance the heat transfer rate within the system, novel longitudinal triangular and traditional rectangular fins with a combination of hybrid nanoparticles (Cu-TiO2) are employed. In summary, utilizing novel fins to improve heat transfer rate in conjunction with nanoparticles is highly effective for improving the phase change material melting process in thermal energy storage systems. The usage of nanoparticles speeds up the melting rate 33.5%- Case A, 20%-Case B, 19.4%-Case C, and 18% for Case D. Moreover, when compared to rectangular-shaped fins, the use of longitudinal triangular -shaped fins accelerates the PCM melting rate. For instance, the melting rate in Case C (fins with longitudinal triangular form) is higher than in Case F (fins with a rectangle shape).

Effect of water on CO2 capture and phase change in non-aqueous 1,4-butanediamine/ethylene glycol biphasic absorbents: Role of hydrogen bond competition

Non-aqueous liquid–solid biphasic absorbents show significant potential for reducing energy consumption in CO2 capture. However, the high hygroscopic nature of amine compounds and the approximately 10 % to 20 % water vapor in natural gas plants’ flue gases challenge their efficiency and stability. This study investigated water’s effects on the CO2 absorption/desorption performance, phase-change behavior, and products of the non-aqueous absorbent 1,4-Butanediamine (BDA)/ethylene glycol (EG). Experimental results show that water significantly impacts absorption/desorption performance. The maximum CO2 loading and regeneration efficiency were 1.4199 mol·mol−1 and 89.85 %, respectively. Water leads to the gradual disappearance of phase changes, with solid-phase CO2 loading decreasing from 0.008 to 0.004 mol·g−1. Quantitative NMR demonstrates that carbamates and CO32-/HCO3- are the main CO2-related products in aqueous systems, with their relative proportions affected by water content. Quantum chemical calculations and molecular dynamics simulations reveal that water enhances absorption efficiency by participating in the catalytic environment and reaction process. Water-induced hydrogen bonding competition is the leading cause of weakened interactions between species. Specifically, H-bonds between carbamate/protonated amines were decreased by 23.94 %. The enhanced solvation effect reduces aggregation of the key products, contributing to the gradual disappearance of phase changes. This study provides insights into water’s effect on non-aqueous biphasic absorbents at the molecular level, offering a theoretical foundation for the development and optimization of absorbents suitable for use with steam-containing flue gases.

MXene decorated hierarchical phase change microcapsules to strengthen the tribological properties of PPS/PTFE fabric composites

The reduction of the wear rate and friction coefficient of composites simultaneously has a great challenge. Herein, a unique phase change microcapsule is designed with n-docosane as the core, TiO2 coated with sodium alginate as the shell, as well as surface-decorated Ti3C2Tx nanosheets. In this microcapsule system, n-docosane absorbs part of the frictional heat via solid-liquid phase change and releases it continuously to achieve self-lubrication. The TiO2 shell possesses excellent load-bearing capacity and Ti3C2Tx is susceptible to interlayer slip, which reduces the friction and wear of fabric composites. The results indicate that an average wear rate and friction coefficient of fabric composites are decreased by 60.85% and 11.83% with the addition of microcapsules. A strong and continuous tribofilm is formed on the steel surface, and the tribofilm enhances the boundary lubrication of the steel counterpart. This paper is expected to provide a novel design thought for the application of core-shell structure in tribology.

Supporting implementation of culturally responsive teaching in a therapeutic setting.

This brief report describes findings from a single case withdrawal design study which explored the impact of training and emailed video prompts to promote a teacher's implementation of a culturally responsive teaching plan in a therapeutic school. Data collectors gathered implementation data as well as observed students' academic engagement and disruptive behavior. The teacher also provided self-report data regarding student outcomes. Results indicated that, overall, training and emailed video prompts demonstrated improvement in the teacher's implementation of the classroom plan as well as student behavior. However, the improvement in dependent variables was more discernible from the first Phase A to Phase B than the second A to B phase change. To build upon these results, we describe that additional research is needed to generalize findings. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Monitoring momentary subjective well-being and psychotic experiences during antipsychotic dose reduction: Two single-case time series experience sampling method pilot study.

Personalized dose optimization is desirable to improve subjective well-being and support rehabilitation. Therefore, N = 1 trials investigating tools to self-manage functional outcomes during dose optimization are necessary. The aim of this pilot study was to determine in two N = 1 trials whether an experience sampling method (ESM) smartphone app could be used to monitor and detect changes in subjective well-being and psychotic experiences during and after dose reduction. Two participants with a psychotic disorder in remission underwent gradual dose reduction under a longitudinal self-monitoring paradigm, accompanied by regular clinical monitoring by the attending physician. Subjective well-being was monitored with an (ESM) app through momentary affective experience (positive and negative affect) and physical well-being (tiredness, feeling unwell, and pain). Momentary psychotic experiences were assessed with four items. Time-series linear regression models were used to detect changes in reduction phases compared to baseline. Whereas significant improvements in subjective well-being and psychotic experiences during dose reduction were detected in one participant, the opposite was demonstrated for the other participant, showing worsened subjective well-being and increased psychotic experiences in the reduction phase compared to baseline. Self-monitoring with an ESM smartphone app offers a tool for detecting changes in subjective well-being and psychotic experiences during antipsychotic dose reduction. In this way, ESM may increase an individual's sense of control and empowerment. It may further facilitate dose optimization and shared decision-making at an individual level, which is required considering the high heterogeneity in psychotic disorders. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).