Burial Research Articles

Crafting illusions: Human-made composite coating used to simulate amber beads in prehistoric Iberia

The discovery of a set of beads, comprising both Sicilian amber and resin-coated beads in the Middle Bronze Age burial site of Cova del Gegant (Sitges, Barcelona, Spain), has sparked inquiries into whether the coating was intended for imitation or counterfeiting of amber. We assert that human-made materials, such as bead coatings, are intentionally conceived, designed, and crafted to fulfill specific functions. Thus, for an object to effectively fulfill its intended purpose, it must meet particular performance criteria influenced by situational factors.This paper aims to construct an empirically grounded narrative elucidating the development and function of resin-coated bead technology. Our methodology includes a comprehensive quantitative analysis of the coating and beads, an exploration of the interplay between technical choices and situational factors, and an investigation into whether the simulation of sensory performance characteristics played a pivotal role in the concept and design of resin-coated beads. Additionally, we synthesize data to unveil broader patterns related to the crafting and utilization of resin-coated and amber beads across time and space.We have documented resin-coated beads in the Iberian Peninsula from the Neolithic period (5th to 3rd millennia BCE) until at least the Middle Bronze Age (first half of the 2nd millennium BCE), where they coexisted with amber beads. Analysis employing ATR-FTIR and μ-CT imaging has revealed a composite coating comprising pine resin, beeswax, and carotene, adhered to shell beads with bone glue. This composite material represents the earliest known development in human history, unique to the Iberian Peninsula and without parallel in Prehistoric Europe.Our examination of the performance characteristics and functional roles of resin-coated beads suggests their potential as substitutes for amber beads, particularly in regions where amber was scarce or inaccessible. Despite being crafted from commonplace materials, these coated beads exhibit intentional design choices likely aimed at simulating the visual performance characteristics of amber. This deliberate effort, alongside their widespread distribution across time and space, indicates that composite-coated beads held symbolic and social significance akin to amber beads.

Mineral trapping of carbon dioxide: Rapid hydrothermal synthesis experiments and carbon sequestration potential of dawsonite

Dawsonite, as a natural CO2 tracing mineral, is intimately associated with CO2 injection and serves as a crucial mineral for geological carbon sequestration. The massive and stable presence of dawsonite in the geological background is a key consideration for CO2 mineralization capture and plays a significant role in identifying CO2 geological burial sites. To investigate the optimal conditions for the rapid synthesis of dawsonite using CO2, we conducted comparative experiments to examine the three primary influencing factors: temperature (100 °C, 120 °C, 140 °C, 160 °C, 180 °C, and 200 °C), pH (8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, and 10.5), and reaction time (6 and 12 h). Through scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis, the optimal conditions for dawsonite synthesis were determined. The experiments revealed that within the pH range of 8.5–10.5 and at temperatures of 100–180 °C, the dawsonite products obtained are consistently pure, which indicates that CO2 can be effectively mineralized and sequestered as dawsonite within these temperature and pH ranges. The synthesis yield increased and then decreased with increasing pH and temperature. At 200 °C, the crystallinity of dawsonite decreased and the content of pseudo-boehmite increased. This suggests that higher temperature conditions are not conducive to the mineralization and sequestration of CO2. Extending the reaction time did not have a significant promoting effect on the quality of the product. The maximum amount of dawsonite synthesis, good dispersion and homogeneity of crystals, and maximum ratio of mineralization of CO2 by dawsonite were achieved at a temperature of 140 °C and a pH of 9.5, indicating that these are the optimal conditions for the hydrothermal synthesis of dawsonite using CO2. Moreover, these are the optimal geological conditions for the mineralization sequestration of CO2 in the form of dawsonite.

Hertigar i läder och siden: Resultaten från en undersökning av tillvarataget material ur Erik och Valdemar Magnussons grav i Uppsala domkyrka

In this article, a collection of textile fragments kept in the Swedish History Museum in Stockholm is presented for the first time. The objects were found in 1906 in a partially emptied medieval grave close to the main altar in Uppsala Cathedral. Judging from the written sources, this grave originally contained the remains of the dukes Erik and Valdemar Magnusson who died imprisoned at Nyköpingshus Castle in 1318. A donation to their tomb is mentioned in a document from the 1320s. In 1729, the grave was rediscovered and obviously emptied of some of its contents. The material kept in the Swedish History Museum consists of pieces of leather, satin, silk and wool along with several fragments of wood and metal. These objects had apparently been put back into the grave after it was examined in 1729. In 2022 some of the textile and leather fragments were carbon-14 dated to the early 14th century. This time fixing supports the idea that they originate from the ducal grave. The leather was most likely used as a cover for the coffins, while some of the satin pieces may have formed a part of one or two burial cushions that were also decorated with silk tassels. Unfortunately, not enough material is preserved to determine whether the dukes’ corpses were covered with winding sheets or if they wore clothes and shoes. Despite this, the collection of fragments at the Swedish History Museum provides valuable information about the royal burial customs in early 14th century Sweden. Especially the satin cushions with silk tassels may be seen as a significant addition to our knowledge of high medieval material culture.

Individual from the kurgan burial of the XII century in the Middle Oka — experience of complex archaeological and genetic research

For the first time, this paper presents a complex study of the burial of the ancient Russian woman from the classic “Vyatich” mound from the Kremenyie burial site (Moscow region). The mounds and synchronized ground cremation burials are combined at this unique 12th-century burial site. The aim of this research is to examine the historical details of the person from the mound using conventional archaeological, anthropological, and archae-oparasitology methodologies along with modern paleogenetics methods. The burial site is characterized by a general “archaic” rite, manifested in the late preservation of the cremation rite along with the burial. According to anthropological data, an elderly woman, over forty, was buried there. She was identified as a member of the local population by radiogenic strontium isotope (87Sr/86Sr) study. Rich grave content and the fact that the body was buried in the middle of the mound indicate the woman's high social standing in the community. According to ar-chaeoparasitological data, the eating habits of the woman appear to be characterized by the consumption of un-cooked or insufficiently thermally prepared freshwater fish. The complete mtDNA sequence reconstruction indi-cates that it belongs to haplogroup V1a1, one of the Western Eurasian haplogroup V branches. To date, this represents the first case of the V1a1 mitogroup being found in the Russian Plain during ancient times. A repre-sentative of the Danish Viking clan from the Oxford burial site of the XI century was the closest of the ancient samples to the mtDNA of the studied woman, which indicates a genetic relationship on the maternal lineage with the medieval Northwestern European population. Single nucleotide substitution A7299G in the mitogenome of the woman clusters her with present-day Russians from the Belgorod and Pskov regions and shows the continuity of the modern Russian population with the Ancient Russians. Thus, the results of our study demonstrate the private details of the individual as common historical features, which include the ceremonial side of burial and belonging to the maternal genetic lineage preserved in the modern gene pool of the Russian population.

The urban cemetery in Wielkie Księstwo Poznańskie and the rural cemetery in Prusy Wschodnie. Similarities and differences in Evangelical burial rites

This article compares two necropolises of people of Evangelical faith located in different regions of the present Polish lands examined in their entirety in connection of rescue archaeological research. The first cemetery was located in the village of Łaziska in Wielkopolska (Greater Poland), the second in the village of Ciernie in Mazury (Masuria). The analysis showed a number of similarities between these two burial sites. However, differences in the wealth and origin of the communities using the necropolises were noticed, which, according to the authors, had its source in the different dynamics of the historical and social transformations of these two regions.

Burial sites as Contested Memorial Terrain: Historicising burial places of African Indigenous church founders in Zimbabwe

Burial sites as Contested Memorial Terrain: Historicising burial places of African Indigenous church founders in Zimbabwe

Exploring Burial and Dietary Patterns at the Copper Age Necropolis of Selvicciola (Viterbo, Italy): New Perspectives from 14C and Stable Isotope Data

The Selvicciola necropolis is a large burial site dated to the Copper Age, located on the mid-Tyrrhenian side of Central Italy, in the Fiora river valley. Despite post-depositional disturbances, 32 prehistoric tombs were found, generally in a good state of preservation, with a total number of 119 individuals identified. In the present study, radiocarbon and stable isotope measurements on bone collagen are combined with skeletal data for 71 of these individuals. We aim to investigate possible changes in food practices and burial patterns throughout time. In detail, the results allowed us to define a timeframe for the use of the cemetery of at least 2000 years, with the two most ancient individuals found in tomb 17 and dated to around 3950 cal BC, assigning this a necropolis chronological investigation of the so-called Rinaldone culture. Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope analysis confirmed a predominantly agropastoral subsistence strategy for this prehistoric community. Although the plant intake consisted mainly of C3 species, we further discuss the fact that the stable isotope data suggest an increase in the consumption of C4 plants over time. The integration of radiocarbon and isotopic data with the skeletal evidence and material culture provides an interesting insight into the funerary world of this community, highlighting the importance of Selvicciola for the understanding of life in the Mediterranean at the transition between the fourth and the third millennia BC.

Continuity and discontinuity at the burial site of Roonka, Murray Gorge, South Australia

Identifying continuity and discontinuity in Holocene hunter-gatherer burial sites is often challenging. Roonka, is the largest excavated burial area in Australia. Despite preliminary analysis in the 1970–1980s chronology was challenging given the complex record of dune formation, intrusive burials, erosion and exposure. As part of collaboration with the River Murray and Mallee Aboriginal Corporation, we have re-analysed the legacy data. We have combined three tools: 3D reconstruction and spatial analysis of the site; Bayesian analysis of the radiocarbon sequence, and archaeothanatology to gain a deeper understanding of the relationships between burials and dune formation and hence the connection between changes in burial practices and environmental change. Analysis confirms that the site was used as a burial place over the last 8000 years, but the burial record has been significantly impacted by erosion. The most likely cause of erosion is ENSO-driven climatic change. Other changes that are not coincident with climatic change but alter the intensity of site use were identified by tracing the number of burials over time. Analysis indicates a shift from occasional and specialised use to increasing use in the mid to Late-Holocene. We argue that burial practices became more diverse and demographically inclusive over time. In summary, our analysis clearly demonstrates that it was not a place for everybody all the time. The selection of ‘who’ and ‘when’ demonstrates access to and maintenance of a broader set of persistent burial places in the Murray Valley region during the Holocene.

Characterisation and dynamics of the fungal communities of Avena fatua and Echinochloa crus‐galli seeds in soil seed bank

AbstractSurvival in the soil seed bank is critical to a weed maintaining populations in arable lands. The role of the seed‐borne fungi in seed decay or survival needs to be determined to find solutions for reducing the weed seed banks in environmentally friendly ways. In this study, changes of the fungal microbiome after seed burial were determined in two economically important weed species, wild oat and barnyard grass. Seeds collected in different populations were buried in two sites and exhumed at intervals over the period of 1.5 years to test the seed fate. Epiphytic and endophytic fungal microbiota of seeds was characterised using both culture‐based approach and NGS of ITS1 region. The proportion of visually intact seeds and decayed seeds was different between the two burial sites. The observed species richness of the isolated epiphytic fungi was higher in the fresh compared to the buried seeds. Fungal taxa determined by NGS amplicon sequencing only partly coincided with the isolated fungi, revealing higher diversity in buried seeds. The dynamic of taxonomic structure of the fungal community was less pronounced in wild oat seeds compared to the barnyard grass seeds, where both endophytic and epiphytic communities were significantly different in the buried seeds and differed between the burial sites. It can be concluded that the epiphytic fungal communities change after seed burial in both plant species, while endophytic communities are more stable in the intact seeds and changes of the fungal community in the seed endosphere may be associated with seed decay.

Reconstructing palaeodiet from the skeleton with stable isotopes - on the interpretation of multi-dimensional datasets.

The analysis of stable isotopes in archaeological human and animal skeletal finds is a routine method in the field of archaeometry. Multi-dimensional datasets are this way easily generated what, however, demands new interpretive approaches. Cluster analyses are capable of detecting multi-dimensional similarities among the isotopic signatures and are thus superior over traditional uni- and bivariate evaluations. This study aims to demonstrate the potential of Gaussian Mixture Model (GMM) clustering for palaeodiet reconstruction. We reevaluate previously published isotopic datasets obtained on early medieval skeletal finds from Upper Bavaria (Germany), also including some individuals from "special burials", e.g., from separated burial sites or circular enclosures. This manageable and easy-to-understand dataset contains four-dimensional isotope signatures (δ13Ccollagen, δ15N, δ13Ccarbonate, δ18Ocarbonate) of 27 individuals. We illustrate the iterative process of cluster analysis and the additional benefit of its outcome for the interpretation of the data. This includes the recognition of noisy isotope data and of those isotope systems that are essential. In our example, three isotope systems were required for a correct palaeodiet reconstruction. While δ13Ccollagen and δ15N values are commonly used for palaeodiet reconstructions, δ13Ccarbonate values, including additional information on dietary carbohydrates and fats, are required for a meaningful cluster separation and, thus, the interpretation of the individuals' diet. No general correlation between dietary quality and grave goods was detectable.

Burial of the Khazar Time on the Territory of the Archaeological Site of Malyachkino IV

In 2021, an archaeological team of Interregional Centre of Archaeological Studies LLC carried out a series of rescue excavations in Malyachkino IV ancient settlement located in Shigonsky District, Samara Region. The main cultural layer represents the Srubnaya culture dating the Late Bronze Age. The settlement was found with a subsoil grave field of the Golden Horde period. The graves are nearly rectangular in shape and slightly deepened into the natural ground. The deceased are buried with their heads facing west and mostly lacking grave goods. The archaeologists also found a single subsoil grave of the Khazars period. The rectangular grave hosts a grown person (anthropological material is in a poor condition). The person is slightly crouched on the right side with the head facing west. Among the grave goods, there were a redware amphora, two moulded earthenware pots, a round jug, a piece of a bronze mirror and ironware fragments. One of its kind for the Middle Volga, the burial ground dates back to the second half of the 8th century – first half of the 9th century. The paper provides equivalents to the finds: a Pontic amphora with partially ribbed surface, a Saltov round jug made of gray clay, a bronze disk-shaped mirror with a small rim around it, moulded ceramics. It is concluded that the studied burial ground is associated with the Saltovo-Mayaki culture, possibly with Khazar nomads in particular. Based on the equivalents from other burial sites in the region, it is likely that the graves were once topped with a small kurgan mound. Later, the kurgan mound was smoothed down as the territory was in economic use. It is assumed that the people who left behind the Malyachkino grave field were migrating to the Middle Volga from a Saltovo-Mayaki steppe.

Архангельское село Лявля как место насилия: между историей и мифом

The article examines the narratives, ideas and cultural practices that exist in the Arkhangelsk cultural space and represent to an external observer the pages of the Soviet history of the village of Lyavlya associated with the mass extermination of people in the 1920s–1950s. The cultural memory of Lyavlya as a place of violence was created by parishioners of the Church of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary and the leadership of the Arkhangelsk diocese. The result of their activities was the formation of a narrative about the history of Lyavlya and the particularization of the memory of the victims of violence. For memory actors, the fate of modern Russia is inseparable from the fate of the Orthodox Church, and the people who died in Lyavlya appear as martyrs for the faith and “heroes of the spirit”. Processions of the cross to burial sites provide an opportunity for their participants to legitimize ideas about the special role of Russia in the Orthodox world and the exclusivity of the Russian people. The fate of the dead clergy and laity, according to memorial actors, serves as evidence of the uniqueness of the Russian nation and its special mission to preserve Orthodoxy. Recently, interest in the topic of the traumatic past has faded. The author shows how the memory of traumatic legacies is constructed through ceremonies, memorials and publications.

Elite of «Loufan» tribe lived on the Ordos plateau and its connections with Zhao and Qin states

In the late 20 century, archaeologists discovered some burial sites of the barbarian elite in the Ordos Plateau dated to 3rd century BC (late Warring States period). Among them Aluchaideng, Sigoupan M2 and Nalingaotu tombs contained burial goods made of precious metals in the style of Pazyryk and Sagly cultures in Altai-Sayan mountain region. There were finials with figures of an upstanding eagle and a hoofed eagle-headed deer-horned phantastic animal with bird heads at the tips of its horns (“hoofed griffin”), a torc with lying animals facing each other. Other items with ‘hoofed griffin’ images and images of a griffin with deer horns and feline body were collected here. There were also ornaments with images of a ram with the twisted body wrapped around its head, ‘swirling’ griffinheads, rooster heads, waterfowls, full-face ‘smiling’ cat heads, flame-shaped figures with ‘commas’ inside. All of the above mentioned artifacts and images have exclusive analogies in Pazyryk culture. As far back as in 1999, the author suggested that the elite of Ordos nomads of 3rd century BC constituted common religious and, possibly, ethnic unity with the Pazyryk people. New discoveries of Pazyryk culture kurgans in the south of Mongolian Altai support a idea that the Ordos part of the Pazyryk people might have connected with Mountain Altai directly via Alashan and Transaltai Gobi stony deserts bypassing foreign peoples of Mongolian Plateau and the Hexi Corridor. According to Shiji, people (or its elite) occupying the Ordos Plateau since 4th–3rd up to late 2nd centuries BC were known by the name “Loufan”, and in early 3rd century BC the Loufan people were controlled by the state of Zhao. As the written sources and archaeological evidence suggest, in the 3rd century BC, the north-east part of the Ordos Plateau (where the burials in question are located) was the area claimed by Zhao and Qin states; therefore, the barbarian tribes of the north-east of the Ordos Plateau should have been closely intertwined with these states. These relations are proven by Pazyryk-Ordos style artifacts manufactured in Qin and Zhao and found in barbarian tombs, as well as similar objects discovered in the Qin, Zhao and Yan territories. In Sigoupan M2 tomb were found such items bearing Chinese inscriptions of Zhao and Qin states. A large number of similar inscribed artifacts manufactured in Zhao found in Xinzhuantou M30 noble tomb in the Lower Capital of Yan state. It supports the theory that the Ordos barbarians were called Loufan, since as per written sources, Loufan people were included in both Zhao’s and Yan’s administrative systems. Some items identical to the M30 artifacts were found in tombs of Zhao dynasty members in Handan. In tomb of bronze caster of late Warring States period in Xi’an were found ceramic models made for casting bronze or gold decorative plaques in Pazyryk-Ordos style. However, some pictures in this style were represented on artifacts found in the tomb of Qin State Queen Dowager Xia (died in 240 BC). Artifacts with images of “hoofed griffin” are found among Qin state artifacts in Shuihude M47 and Shangwangqun M1 tombs dated to late Warring States period. Moreover, in Xi’an were also found two roof tile-ends with images of a sacred Pazyryk ‘hoofed griffin’ with twisted body. These tiles obviously belonged to luxurious mansion of Warring States period. These artifacts suggest that the Ordos Loufans did not only maintained cultural communication with the Qin state, but also became part of its people.

장위공 서희 묘역의 고고학적 의미

Goryeo’s grave remains that have been designated and managed as state-designated cultural properties since the establishment of the state include Goryeo’s old tomb group in Pyeonggeo-dong, Jinju designated as Historic Site No. 164 in 1968 and the tomb of General Yun Gwan designated as Historic Site No. 323 in 1988 only, and the criteria for designating these two remains as historic sites exhibit several problems. In general, the status of a state-designated cultural property has the historicity and symbolicity that can represent a specific period, and importantly, the irreplaceable scarcity and uniqueness of the value of existence should be equipped at the same time. Nevertheless, the tomb of General Yun Gwan which lost the original form as Gwaninbunmyo in Goryeo could be designated as a historical site because of the figure’s symbolicity in overcoming the national crisis. Looking at Seo Hee’s tomb from this point of view, we can find the aspect that it was transformed into Joseon’s Gwaninbunmyo while maintaining part of the appearance of Goryeo’s Gwaninbunmyo. This aspect of Seo Hee’s tomb is understood to show that the graveyard was first formed in Goryeo and then maintained and managed continuously in Joseon, too. Next, according to the results of archaeological examination on Seo Hee’s tomb, it is questionable whether early Goryeo officials uniformly preferred Gaegyeong and Geungi areas as burial sites as shown in previous studies. In this regard, this study reinvestigated the material of epitaphs put in graves in Goryeo. According to the findings, the time when Goryeo officials used Gaegyeong and areas around it as burial sites in earnest was from the time of King Munjong. Then, during the time before King Munjong in Goryeo when various systems were legislated in Goryeo and Gaegyeong’s status was newly established, it seems that Goryeo officials still maintained a bond with where they were born even though they moved their home base to Gaegyeong. Therefore, it is highly likely that Seo Hee’s tomb was built in Yeoju, Gyeonggi-do during the time before King Munjong in Goryeo.

Predicting leachate impact on groundwater using electrical conductivity and oxidation–reduction potential measurements: An empirical and theoretical approach

This study developed innovative predictive models of groundwater pollution using in situ electrical conductivity (EC) and oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) measurements at livestock carcass burial sites. Combined electrode analysis (EC and ORP) and machine learning techniques efficiently and accurately distinguished between leachate and background groundwater. Two models—empirical and theoretical—were constructed based on a supervised classification framework. The empirical model constructs a classifier with high accuracy, sensitivity, and specificity, utilizing the comprehensive in situ EC and ORP measurements. The theoretical model with only two end members achieves comparable performance by simulating the leachate–groundwater interactions using a geochemical mixing model. Besides enhancing the early detection capabilities, our approach considerably reduces the reliance on extensive hydrochemical analyses, thus streamlining the monitoring process. Moreover, the use of field parameters was found to proactively identify potential pollution incidents, enhancing the efficiency of groundwater monitoring strategies. Our approach is applicable to various waste disposal sites, indicating its extensive potential for environmental monitoring and management.

Tree in the Khakass Traditional Funeral Rites (Late 19<sup>th</sup> – Mid 20<sup>th</sup> Century)

Purpose. The sacralization of the tree and its involvement in ritual practice is one of the significant and widespread phenomena represented in the traditional culture of many peoples, including the Khakass. The life cycle of a person among this people ends with a funeral rite. The Khakass traditional funeral rite reflects the archaic ideas of people about the other world. Burial rituals were basically aimed at changing the semiotic status of a person and marked his transition from earthly life to otherness. Special importance in this process is given to the tree and its image.Results. The purpose of the article is to determine the place and function of the tree and its derivatives in the funeral rites of the Khakass. The chronological framework of the work is limited to the framework of the late 19th – 20th centuries. The choice of such time limits is determined by the state of the source base on the research topic. Ethnographic and folklore materials, both published and introduced into scientific circulation, served as a source base. Among folklore sources, heroic tales (alyptyg nymakhtar) are widely used, excerpts from which are presented for the first time in the author's translation in Russian. Leading in the study is the principle of historicism, when any cultural phenomenon is considered in development and considering a specific situation. The research methodology is based on historical and ethnographic methods: remnants (relic) and semantic analysis.Conclusion. As a result of the research, the author concludes that the tree and its image were given great importance in the Khakass traditional funeral rite. The specified plant had a wide semantic field, which included the idea of it as: an afterlife means of transportation – a boat / raft, a “world tree”, the sacred path of the human soul, the dwelling of the deceased, an apotropaic object, etc. In the traditional culture of the people under consideration, two main types of human burials have been identified: underground and aerial. In both cases, an integral ritual element of the funeral is a tree in its various manifestations and combinations.

Intertemporal Memories of a Shifting Unity

In ancient Greece, a metropolis and its apoikiai constituted a form of kinship unity. In Thucydides’ view, at least in his era, particular bonds of kinship connected the Corinthian apoikiai on, or in the vicinity of, the Ambracian Gulf with Corinth itself, and literary tradition endowed Ambracia, Leucas and Anactorion with a special cultural unity. Modern research ranging over political institutions, foreign policy, ideology, economic factors, cults, myths, calendar and burial customs has shown that these poleis regarded themselves as members of a Corinthian colonial family. Initially highly dependent on Corinthian policy during the archaic period, by the end of this period the western apoikiai had admittedly begun to diverge from a Corinthian-centred economy and to move away from Corinthian traditions. Internal social diversification also caused these poleis to move away from Corinthian institutions and habits. Nevertheless, despite various political fluctuations, western Corinthian apoikiai remained within the Corinthian sphere of influence and after Timoleon’s campaign they revived old Corinthian traditions and institutions. Indeed, other Greeks of late classical times regarded the citizens of these poleis as if they were indeed Corinthians. The area remained under Corinthian economic influence throughout Hellenistic times and memories of affinities with and ties to Corinth survived in her apoikiai. Lastly, Hellenistic monarchs and even Augustus himself took advantage of the peculiar Corinthian identity of these apoikiai for their own ends.

EXCAVATIONS OF THE RUDNIA BARROW CEMETERY IN POLACK DZVINA REGION IN 1961

Barrow cemetery Rudnia (Polack district, Viciebsk region, Republic of Belarus) has repeatedly attracted the attention of researchers. Its first excavations were carried out in the middle and second half of the 19th century (1852 and 1889). Scientific research of the necropolis was carried out in 1928, 1961 and 1967. A total of 23 barrows were excavated during this period. The materials obtained in the course of these works made it possible to attribute the Rudnia barrow cemetery to the Smolensk-Polack Long Barrows Culture. The article discusses in detail the results of the 1961 excavations, which had not previously been completely published. Analysis of the chronology of the grave goods allows us to date two barrows (3/17 and 1/15) with relative certainty. A review of the finds and burial rite of the barrows explored in 1928 and 1967 suggests that all the relatively narrowly and reliably dated barrows of the Rudnya cemetery were erected in the middle/second half of the 10th — early 11th centuries. The two discovered inhumation burials could obviously have been performed not earlier than the end of the 10th century. It is possible to assume that their construction could have taken place over a long period of time from the end of the 10th century and throughout the 11th century, but in reality, the dating of these barrows is probably determined within the framework of the end of the 10th century and the first half of the 11th century. Individual inhumation burials on the cemeteries of the Smolensk-Polack Long Barrows Culture at the final stages of their existence are registered in several necropolises of this culture on the western boundaries of its area. As we can see, such transformation of burial rite could take place not only in the western frontiers of the culture, but also in the vicinity of Polack.

Gender and Division of Labor Associated with Dying, Burial, and Mourning in Early America

During the colonial period, and the years of the new republic, death most frequently occurred in the home. Members of communities engaged in a system of mutual aid by helping families at a time of loss. Women cared for the sick and dying and prepared the body for burial.4 Men built coffins, as an extension of the cabinet making trade. The local sexton dug the grave. On the day of the funeral, men transported the coffin to the burial site. Women participated in the funeral service by providing hospitality to mourners and taking part in the procession. Women and men participated in mourning rituals by donning attire and following mourning etiquette based on religion and social status. These gendered divisions of labor and social expectations represented the specified gender roles within colonial society. Although the rituals associated with death and dying particularly in functions outside the home were dominated by men, women still carved out their own place in these rituals based on gender roles of the time.

A new laboratory‐based method to experimentally induce diagenetic modifications in human bone tissue using archaeological gravesoils

AbstractThe conditions of the burial environment trigger microstructural modifications and physical‐chemical changes in the bone, such as chemical dissolution, increase of crystallinity, chemical exchanges, collagen degradation and changes in porosity, hence to reproduce these patterns is a challenging task. This work presents a new method to accelerate the diagenetic processes in the laboratory. Artificial aging is obtained by immersion at 80°C in “enriched” solutions derived from the leaching of gravesoils, maintaining the same pH, for 1 month, on modern bones collected from an autopsy. Two distinct solutions from two graves of the necropolis of Travo (IT) (7th–8th century AD) were adopted. The induced damage patterns, on the bone microstructure and the organo‐mineral fraction, have been compared with those observed on buried skeletal elements from the same graves, by providing a multi‐analytical approach (BSE‐SEM, EMPA, FT‐IR, MP‐AES). Bioapatite parameters, such as crystallinity index and Ca/P molar ratio, evolved similarly and, in some cases, reached the same values of buried bones. Conversely, in the absence of microbial activity, the organic fraction better survived the artificial aging. For the same reason, the porosity due to bioerosion was absent in the artificially aged samples, whereas the biological pores and the post‐mortem fractures exhibited the same histomorphology. It is believed that the opportunity of reproducing the diagenetic changes by replicating the chemical environment of the burial site at the laboratory scale is of great interest to forensic science and archaeology (e.g., to reconstruct the burial environment).