Ceramic Tiles Research Articles

Suitability and characterization of pumice, bauxite, and ferrochrome slag as alternative raw materials in vitrified ceramic industry

Since the natural raw materials used in the manufacture of clay-based ceramic products vary greatly in the sintering stage, the resulting products are quite heterogeneous. In addition, different types of waste could be used to make ceramic tiles and bricks. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the effects of pumice, bauxite, and ferrochrome slag on the vitrified ceramic body. In this context, firstly, binary slip mixtures were prepared by composing 40% clay with 60% pumice, bauxite, and ferrochrome slag one by one, which was reduced to 150 µm in particle size. Then, the mixtures were shaped by slip casting method and sintered at 1000°C, 1100°C, 1200°C, and 1250°C. The qualitative XRD analysis was performed in order to see the phase variation, and physical properties were determined with shrinkage and water adsorption measurements. Since pumice transformed into a glassy phase after sintering at 1100°C, an amorphous phase was observed in all samples produced with pumice. In addition, the mullite development occurred in clay-pumice body composition with the temperature increment. However, tridymite and cristobalite phases were analysed in clay bauxite and ferrochrome body compositions. The shrinkage and water adsorption values, which were high in the samples sintered at 1000°C, began to reduce from 1100°C to 1250°C significantly. In particular, water adsorption reached 0% in the clay-pumice system which was suitable for a fully vitrified-high density standard (ISO13006-10545/98). Besides, the brighter colour was reached in the clay-pumice system while brown and black colour was seen in clay-bauxite and clay-ferrochrome bodies, respectively.

Influence of Ceramic Wastes as a Recycled Coarse Aggregate with Different Maximum Sizes on the Concrete

Background Natural raw resources needed for concrete construction are continuously being depleted as a result of infrastructure development that is increasing. As a result, waste material substitutes are highly favored because they adopt a sustainable strategy. Objective In this study, the possibility of substituting natural coarse aggregates with coarse aggregate made from ceramic wall tiles with three different maximum aggregate sizes (12.5, 19, and 25 mm) in three partial replacement levels of natural coarse aggregate by (25, 50, and 75%) was investigated. Methods Concrete's hardened density, compressive and splitting tensile strengths, ultrasonic pulse velocity, water absorption, and volume of permeable pores were all tested experimentally. Results Results indicated that with the increment of the maximum aggregate size, each of the hardened densities, the compressive and splitting tensile strengths and the rate of water absorption diminished while pulse velocity enhanced, regardless of the substitution rate of ceramic aggregate. However, for all maximum aggregate sizes, the mixture containing 25% ceramic coarse aggregate showed a small improvement in mechanical properties. Compared to the reference mixture, which had compressive strengths of 29.31, 38.73, and 47.13 MPa at 7, 28, and 90 days for the 12.5 mm maximum aggregate size, the improvement ratios were 8.9%, 3.7%, and 2.7% at 7, 28, and 90 days, respectively. Moreover, because of increased heterogeneity, internal bleeding, and the development of microcracks in the larger coarse aggregate sizes, concrete with lower ceramic coarse aggregate sizes has a stronger bond than that of the latter. Results also indicated that the mechanical performance of concrete mixtures having ceramic aggregate slightly improved with 25% ceramic coarse aggregate, then lowered in the mixtures with 50% and 75%, consecutively, at all ages. Concrete using ceramic aggregate displays a poor transition zone because of the improper binding between the paste and the coarse ceramic aggregate caused by the aggregate's porcelain texture. Additionally, the water absorption of concrete mixtures containing ceramic aggregate increased with the increase in the percentage of ceramic coarse aggregate. Conclusion The employing of ceramic waste aggregate was shown to contribute to sustainable development and a cleaner environment by producing sustainable concrete from the recycling of ceramic wastes. Each of the hardened density, compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, and water absorption of concrete mixtures decreased and the pulse velocity enhanced as the maximum aggregate size increased. The mechanical properties decreased at all ages in the mixtures containing 50 and 75% of the aggregate, whereas they slightly increased in the mixture containing 25% of the aggregate.

Water Footprint Analysis of Ceramic Tiles Industry

Water Footprint Analysis of Ceramic Tiles Industry

INVESTIGATION OF THE USE OF KÜTAHYA REGION KAOLIN IN WALL TILES

The main raw materials in the ceramic wall tiles are clay, kaolin, calcite, and feldspar. The technical properties of the tiles (water absorption, total shrinkage, dry firing strength, fracture strength) and the desired physical properties (L, a, b, surface smoothness) vary depending on the raw material content in the recipe. Rheological parameters are crucial in the formulation development stages to avoid production problems and to ensure the final desired product parameters. Density, viscosity, and sieve analysis have therefore been included in the developed formulations. The use of raw materials from the region close to the production facility facilitates easy access to these materials. Thanks to this advantage, the use of domestic raw materials is becoming more widespread. In addition to the use of alternative raw materials, it contributes to the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. The aim of this study, is to formulate a recipe for wall tiles using kaolins from the Kütahya region instead of clay from the Afyon region. Recipes containing 2%, 4%, 6%, and 8% of Kütahya region kaolin, with a corresponding reduction in clay from the Afyon region, were developed and sintered at 1130-1150°C with a 29-minute firing cycle. By analyzing the technical properties of the developed formulations, it was found that a maximum of 2% of Kütahya region kaolin could be used in the wall tile formulation. It was found that exceeding this percentage was not feasible due to the associated increase in water absorption, expansion of product size, and decrease in dry strength.

Radon exhalation and health hazard assessment for various ceramic tiles used in Bangladesh

Objective: Among various building materials, tiles are the most used decorative materials used worldwide. For the safe use of tiles at home and workplace it is required to select them properly based on radiation dose due to radon and gamma emission.
 Experiments: Among various tiles available in the market, 25 different types of tiles were collected for this experiment. Collected tiles are then ground and stored in sealed cans for secular equilibrium. To measure gamma activity due to the radionuclides 226Ra, 232Th, 40K, High Purity Germanium (HPGe) detector was used. To store radon gas emitting from tiles, a big box was used. The activity concentration was then measured by a radon detector (RadonEye) by placing it inside the box.
 Results and discussion: It was observed that 226Ra, 232Th, 40K activity varies from 45 – 89 Bq/Kg, 77 – 110 Bq/Kg, and 321 – 694 Bq/Kg. The radium equivalent activity varies from 198.32 – 280.46 Bq/Kg, less than the recommended value of 370 Bq/Kg set by UNSCEAR (United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation). The activity concentration of radon varies from 31 – 71 Bq/m3. This is lower than the 300 Bq/m3 recommended by ICRP (International Commission on Radiological Protection). The radon exhalation rate varies from 0.179 – 0.409 Bqm−2h−1. To assess radiological hazards associated with the tiles samples air absorbed dose rate, internal and external hazard index, gamma index, annual indoor and outdoor effective dose rate, and dose due to radon were also calculated.
 Conclusion: Though the estimated values for external and internal hazards are below the recommended values, they may be safe for adults. As children have thinner skin and breathe more air due to high breathing frequency, they may receive more radiation than adults. Moreover, they are at a greater risk because of their developing bodies and long life expectancy post-exposure.

Metal–Organic Frameworks-Derived FeCo/C–CNT Nanocomposites Modified Epoxy Resin for Electromagnetic Protection Coatings for Buildings

Exploring an efficient electromagnetic protection strategy for buildings is of great significance to solve the problems caused by increasing electromagnetic pollution, as the rapid progress of technology continues. In this work, FeCo alloy/carbon–carbon nanotube (FeCo/C–CNT) nanocomposites, with significant microwave absorption performance, were successfully synthesized using a simple pyrolysis method involving FeCo–ZIF MOFs precursors and added to epoxy resin to prepare a novel electromagnetic wave absorption (EWA) coating. The minimum reflection loss (RLmin) of the coating applied on the surface of the ceramic tiles was −23.89 dB at 11.37 GHz and the effective absorption bandwidth (EAB) reached 8.85 GHz. Through microscopic characterization and analysis of the electromagnetic parameters of the FeCo/C–CNT nanocomposites, it was found that the EWA coating has an ultrabroad band wave absorption effect, mainly due to the comprehensive advantages of the polarization loss from CNTs, impedance matching, the dual loss synergy effect, and multiple reflection between the FeCo alloys, the carbon layer, and the CNTs. This study has successfully developed high-performance EWA materials and demonstrated the feasibility of an EWA coating applied to building surfaces, contributing to the improvement of electromagnetic protection functions of buildings.

ENHANCING CONCRETE STRENGTH WITH RECYCLED CERAMIC TILES AND DENTAL ADMIXTURES

This study explores for the first time the utilization of combined use of ceramic tile aggregate and dental cast stones in the concrete production process. Ceramic tiles, sourced from manufacturing industries as well as construction and demolition sites—sources contributing to environmental pollution—were employed, along with waste dental cast stones obtained from hospitals in Metro Manila. The integration of crushed tiles as a replacement for coarse aggregate in concrete not only addresses environmental concerns but also holds promising economic benefits. Consequently, the incorporation of these ceramic wastes into concrete production emerges as a viable strategy for environmental preservation while simultaneously enhancing the concrete's properties particularly compressive strength. In the experimentation phase, crushed ceramic tile serves as 100% substitute for coarse aggregate while the dental cast stones serve as additive at varying percentages (1%, 3%, and 6%). The concrete mixtures, adhering to M20 grade standards, were meticulously prepared and subjected to casting, followed by thorough testing for Compressive Strength after curing period of 28 days. The obtained results reveal that excellent compressive strength is achieved with the replacement of ceramic tile aggregate in conjunction with natural coarse aggregate and pulverized dental cast stones as natural additive. In Addition, the obtained result of adding 1% waste additive material yields an average increase of 0.64% higher than the standard mix (controlled). The mixture with 3% waste additive material yields an average increase of 13.06% and while adding 6% waste additive material yields an average increase of 30.07% in comparison to conventional concrete with both respective curing period of 7, 14, 28 days. This insightful exploration underscores the potential of sustainable practices in concrete production for environmental benefits.

The impact of incorporating waste materials on the mechanical and physical characteristics of tile adhesive materials

Abstract The goal of the investigation is to produce a cement mortar for building units and a high-performance ceramic tile adhesive by using V autoclaved aerated concrete as a partial substitute for cement. The combination consists of sand, crushed limestone, and polymeric additives. The experimental procedures were conducted utilizing contemporary laboratory equipment to facilitate the manufacturing of the product and the subsequent investigation of its characteristics, in accordance with the standards outlined in EN12004 and ASTM C1660. The laboratory tests carried out, which included splitting tensile strength, bonding strength, and open application duration, have demonstrated conformity to the product standards. The raw materials undergo many examinations prior to their utilization in the preparation process. The conducted tests encompassed chemical analysis, X-ray diffraction, and viscosity evaluation. These experiments aimed to ascertain the mixing ratios and determine the optimal quantity of water required for the preparation procedure. A thickness of 3 mm was employed, rendering it very cost-effective and environmentally sustainable due to the utilization of recycled resources. This particular adhesive possesses supplementary characteristics, such as its self-sufficiency on the site, since it is readily used without the need for extra materials, requiring only the addition of the necessary amount of water. Extensive research has been conducted on a range of mix designs and particle sizes for raw materials, together with varying proportions of additives, to determine the optimal ratio that satisfies both criteria and cost considerations. The adhesion strength of the building units was determined to be 7 N/mm2, surpassing the specified value in ASTM C1660. This indicates that the material is deemed successful and meets the required specifications for its application as a mortar for building units, as per the standard stating that an adhesion strength test exceeding 5 N/mm2 is necessary. The evaluation of the characteristics of the material employed as tile adhesive mortar was conducted in accordance with the EN1348 standard, revealing satisfactory compliance with all specified criteria. The application duration of the tile adhesive exceeds 25 min, while its tensile strength surpasses 10 N/mm2, thereby meeting the criteria for classification as a Class A tile adhesive.

Preparation and Performance of Ceramic Tiles with Steel Slag and Waste Clay Bricks.

Steel slag and waste clay bricks are two prevalent solid waste materials generated during industrial production. The complex chemical compositions of these materials present challenges to their utilization in conventional alumina silicate ceramics manufacturing. A new type of ceramic tile, which utilizes steel slag and waste clay brick as raw materials, has been successfully developed in order to effectively utilize these solid wastes. The optimal composition of the ceramic material was determined through orthogonal experimentation, during which the effects of the sample molding pressure, the soaking time, and the sintering temperature on the ceramic properties were studied. The results show that the optimal ceramic tile formula was 45% steel slag, 35% waste clay bricks, and 25% talc. The optimal process parameters for this composition included a molding pressure of 25 MPa, a sintering temperature of 1190 °C, and a soaking time of 60 min. The prepared ceramic tile samples had compositions in which solid waste accounted for more than 76% of the total material. Additionally, they possessed a modulus of rupture of more than 73.2 MPa and a corresponding water absorption rate of less than 0.05%.

Evaluation and application of Moroccan clay materials in ceramic tiles: Composition and technological behavior

This paper aims to assess the suitability of various Moroccan clay materials for application in ceramic tile production. Six clay samples (S1–S6) sourced from cities including Fez-Meknes, Safi, Berrechid, and Benslimane were collected and subjected to comprehensive characterization to elucidate their chemical and mineralogical composition, as well as their morphological and thermal behavior. The impact of sintering temperatures ranging from 900 to 1100 °C on parameters such as bulk density, porosity, water absorption, shrinkage, flexural strength, and chemical resistance was investigated. Results revealed elevated levels of Fe2O3 (>3 %), indicative of dark firing clays across all samples. Additionally, the samples exhibited a composition comprising clay minerals, quartz, feldspars, and carbonates. Based on the findings, it was determined that these clay materials are suitable for the production of cottoforte and majolica falling within the BIIb and BIII ceramic classes (ISO 13006). The study underscores the potential of these materials for utilization in industrial ceramic products, given their demonstrated characteristics.

Recycling of urban glass waste in ceramic floor tiles toward sustainability

AbstractAround 21.7 million tons of urban solid waste are produced in North Africa and the Middle East. The amount of glass waste produced is 0.87 million tons. The amount of urban glass waste (UGW) produced in Egypt was 2280.8 tons per day. This paper aims to study the effect of partial replacement of UGW in the production of ceramic floor tiles to save the production cost and raw materials. The characteristics of the basic raw mixture of floor tiles and UGW were studied. The waste was collected, crushed and ground to be blended with the basic mixture in different percentages that ranged from 0 to 35%. The specimens were molded under uniaxial pressure followed by drying and firing at temperatures ranging from 1050 to 1120 °C. The characteristics of the fired specimens have been determined and compared with the International Standard Limits. The results showed that specimens containing waste ranging from 25% to 35%, fired at 1100 °C with a soaking time of 15 min have a modulus of rupture of 18.9 to 19.7 MPa, breaking strength of 600 to 613N and water absorption of 9.78% to 8.2% respectively that fulfilled the lowest requirements for the ISO 13006 for dry pressed tiles Group BIIb.

Frit-Free solar reflective porcelain stoneware ceramic tiles using recycled granite Waste: An investigation on its engobe and glaze formulations

The design of tiles can accelerate the transition of urban environments towards sustainability when building materials are prepared with sustainable, indigenous, renewable or recycled resources and additionally, present solar reflective properties for mitigating the Urban Heat Island (UHI) phenomenon. Here, an innovative approach to develop frit-free ceramics having solar reflectance property using locally sourced recycled granite waste was explored. The investigation unfolds in three parts: (i), the formulations were tailored for the engobe or glaze by varying raw material proportions; (ii), the solar reflectance was improved using whitening agents; and (iii), the selected formulations were subjected to an industrial trial casting of porcelain stoneware tiles. The full replacement of nepheline and feldspar with recycled granite powder offered properties suitable for the engobe such as a matte surface with high roughness and low gloss, while the same was identified to be less suitable in the glaze. The glaze formulation without any industrial frits was achieved by altering the proportions of nepheline and feldspar in the matrix. The solar reflectance of the engobe was enhanced by adding 10% of fine-grained zircon. The industrial trial showed that the developed formulation retained its conventional characteristics and superior functional performance in stain and chemical resistance.

Evaluation of Waste Ceramic Tiles, Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement and Recycle Concrete Aggregate as Pavement Sub-Base

The use of various reclaimed or recycled materials from ancient structures as a source of construction materials has become common in modern road and pavement engineering procedures due to the shortage of fresh natural aggregate supplies and rising processing prices. Waste ceramic tiles (WCT), reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP), and recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) have all been used for a long time as aggregates in the construction of pavement. WCT, RAP, and RCA are all thoroughly analyzed in this paper, with a focus on their mechanical, environmental, and physical properties. To evaluate the load-bearing ability, drainage capabilities, and long-term durability of these substitute materials when applied as pavement sub-base, laboratory tests and performance analysis were carried out. Since different mixtures of these materials are created, the maximum California bearing ratio of 25.54% is found. By promoting the usage of recycled materials, eliminating waste, and lowering the carbon footprint associated with conventional construction processes, this initiative helps to sustainably build out transportation infrastructure.

Facade Panels with Integrated Clinker Products

The paper covers current trends in the development of facade systems. Modern innovative hinged panels made of glass fiber reinforced concrete and polyurethane foam with integrated clinker products are considered. An analysis of the defects identified during the inspection of the panels was carried out. Possible mechanisms of their damage are described. The most likely cause of damage to clinker products integrated into panels are tensile and shear stresses resulting from differences in temperature deformations of clinker and glass fiber reinforced concrete. An analysis of the stress state of these materials at positive and negative temperatures was performed. The results of experimental studies are presented. Installing a damping layer of deformable material might be the way to compensate the stresses between clinker products and glass fiber reinforced concrete. An analysis of the stress state of the connection of ceramic tiles with polyurethane foam is given. It is shown that due to the significant difference in their temperature deformations, a concentration of shear stresses is observed in the contact zone, resulting in delamination of the tiles. The paper discusses the potential implication of the described panels and their possible further improvement.

Unleashing the Flexural Behavior of Ceramic Hybrid Rubber Reinforced Composites for Sustainable Industry

An innovative methodology is employed to explore the potential of repurposing floor ceramics and used tire rubber for fine aggregate. In contrast to one-way ordinary concrete slabs, the behavior of Ceramic Hybrid Rubber Reinforced Composite Slabs (CHRRCS) under pure bending has been thoroughly examined. There is no discernible negative effect of the quantity of ceramic floor tiles on the characteristics of concrete. In this study, M30 concrete with a water-to-cement ratio of 0.38 is employed. The distribution reinforcement was made up of bars with an 8 mm diameter, while the main reinforcement was made up of 10 mm diameter Fe 415 grade steel bars. The CHRRCS with 2% rubber fibers, 10% replacement ceramic, and 10% pre-treated crumb rubber exhibit more significant deflection only under extreme stress conditions. Apart from the experimental study, ABAQUS was used to perform a finite element model in three-dimensional simulation and analyze the load-displacement behavior. The comparison of ABAQUS simulation and experimental data yields a fair range. The flexural performance of CHRRCS is enhanced in pure bending.

Historical lime‐based flooring mortars from the Church of Santa Maria de Alcobaça monastery (12th century), Portugal: A multi‐analytical approach

AbstractThe Monastery of Alcobaça houses in reserve the ceramic tiles that adorned the floor of the church's apse. These tiles were removed during rehabilitation works and many preserve part of their original fixing mortars. A comprehensive analysis of 21 samples was conducted using a multi‐analytical approach (X‐ray fluorescence, X‐ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy–energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy, μ‐Raman spectroscopy, thermogravimetry–differential thermal analysis, optical microscopy, and colorimetry). Results suggest compositional variations in the samples from the back and sides of the ceramic tiles; however, the mineralogy and general characteristics of the aggregates remained consistent between the samples and are coherent with the local geology, suggesting a shared historical origin.

Sustainable pink ink synthesis from calcium rich/eggshell waste: Chromium tin pink sphene

The chromium-doped tin sphene or malayaite (Ca(Sn,Cr)SiO5, PR233) was synthesized by solid-state reaction method at temperatures between 1300 and 1500 °C. Two different pigments were obtained according to the chemical formula CaSn(1-x)SiCrxO5±δ (x = 0.01 and 0.03). Eggshell, calcium-rich wastes (CRW), were utilized as raw material. The eggshell was only washed and milled. In the pigment reactant formula, more than 30% by weight of CRW was used. Pigments were milled by a planetary ball mill with zirconium oxide equipment. The pigments obtained were used as glaze colorants and inks by reducing the particles to micro and nano sizes, respectively. The Dv(90) of pigments milled for glaze application is 7.19–7.98 μm, while it is 660–678 nm for ink application. Micron-sized pigments were mixed with transparent glaze and applied to the engobe-coated ceramic tile with a pool-type film applicator. The inks were applied to engobe-coated and transparent glazed ceramics through the screen printing method. After glaze and ink application, ceramic tiles were fired at 1130 °C. When the color values of glaze application are examined, the values for L*, a* and b* are between 48.9 and 63.8, 18.4–23.5, 1.2–4.6, respectively. In the Ink application, L*, a* and b* are 71.0–81.2, 21.8–12.7 and 0.9–2.8, respectively. Characterization was performed using various devices such as X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), field emission-scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), and spectrophotometer. The conducted studies revealed that the calcium requirement for Ca(Sn,Cr)SiO5 pigment was entirely met using CRW, and a ceramic ink suitable for inkjet applications was successfully obtained.

Fracture Behavior of Crop Circle Ceramic Tiles: Experimental and Numerical Study

This research investigates the effect of three-dimensional (3D) bee-crop-circle tiles on load deformation, initial cracking and propagation, and stress redistribution. Experimental tests provide limited data due to the small specimen size and brittle nature of the material. A finite element (FE) model is constructed and validated by laboratory data to analyze the stress-strain responses and failure mode. The model enables a detailed description of stress patterns, stress propagation, and redistribution of layers beneath the bee design. The study concludes that a 3D crop circle-inspired design significantly influences the ultimate load-carrying capacity and stress-related behavior. The load-deformation response is nonlinear, and the coloring influences the thickness of coatings, further affecting the ultimate load and initial stiffness. Furthermore, designs with convex details result in an arc action, deviating the stress concentrations away from the line of loading. The FE model slightly overestimates the initial stiffness but represents the ultimate load and load-displacement response with high accuracy.

Use of technogenic raw materials in ceramic technology

Studies have shown that burnt rocks and ash-and-slag materials, as corrective additives, improve the properties of poor-quality clay raw materials. The possibility of using this technogenic raw material in ceramics technology for the manufacture of ceramic products for various purposes is shown. The use of burnt rocks and ash-and-slag materials improves the sintering of the shards, intensifies the crystallization of mullite-like compounds, which has a positive effect on the physical and mechanical properties of ceramic products: strength and frost resistance increase, shrinkage deformations and water absorption decrease. The use of burnt rocks and ash-and-slag materials makes it possible to obtain refractory products on loam instead of refractory clays. The results of laboratory studies are confirmed by tests of pilot batches of ceramic bricks and tiles, thin-walled ceramic products (roof tiles and artistic ceramics).

Synthesis of zeolite‐derived blue nanopigment and its modification for hydrophobic coating on ceramic tile

AbstractThis study presents the successful synthesis of a vibrant blue nanopigment derived from the metastable structure of Na‐heulandite zeolite. Employing ion exchange and coprecipitation methods with cobalt and zinc ions, followed by thermal treatment at 1100°C, resulted Co‐willemite and gahnite phases, confirmed by x‐ray diffraction and Rietveld refinement. Optical analyses verified the blue coloration, with cobalt ion transitions evident. CIE L* a* b* colorimetric analysis placed the pigment in the blue region (L* = 49.19, b* = −22, a* = −11). Application to ceramic tiles, followed by sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) modification, produced a nearly superhydrophobic surface (contact angle 140°, sliding angle 8°), attributed to the nano–micro structure and SDS–silica interaction. Field emission‐scanning electron microscopy images confirmed the pattern‐like surface with small patterns. These findings indicate potential self‐cleaning capabilities when exposed to dirt or water, highlighting the research's promise in enhancing ceramic functionality.