Central Marshes Research Articles

First record of colour aberration in Basra Reed Warbler Acrocephalus griseldis (Hartlaub, 1891) (Passeriformes: Acrocephalidae) from Central Marshes of southern Iraq, with notes on its intraspecific/interspecific behavior

Pigment disorders such as albinism, leucism and progressive greying, which cause the absence of melanin pigments in all or parts of the plumage and bare parts, have been reported in many wild bird populations including Acrocephalus warblers. Basra Reed Warbler Acrocephalus griseldis (Hartlaub, 1891) is a restricted-range species confined to the extensive reed beds of Mesopotamian marshes. It is listed as Endangered due to breeding habitat degradation, water scarcity and climate change. In April 2018, a partly white plumaged Basra Reed Warbler was sighted in Central Marshes in southern Iraq. This is the first report of such a plumage aberration in this species. The nature of the aberration involved an intraspecific/interspecific behavior of the white plumaged Basra Reed Warbler are described.

Using Satellite Remote Sensing to Study the Impact of Climate and Anthropogenic Changes in the Mesopotamian Marshlands, Iraq

The Iraqi Marshes in Southern Iraq are considered one of the most important wetlands in the world. From 1982 to the present, their area has varied between 10,500 km2 and 20,000 km2. The marshes support a variety of plants, such as reeds and papyrus, and are home to many species of birds. These marshes are Al-Hammar, Central or Al-Amarah, and Al-Huwaiza. Freshwater supplies to the marshes come from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq and from the Karkha River from Iran. For this analysis, we used the Land Long-Term Data Record Version 5 (LTDR V5) Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) from the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) sensor dataset. This dataset was recently released at a 0.05 × 0.05° spatial resolution and daily temporal resolution to monitor the spatial and temporal variability of vegetation along with other hydrological variables such as land surface temperature, precipitation, and evapotranspiration. In our analysis, we considered three time periods: 1982–1992; 1993–2003; and 2004–2017 due to anthropogenic activities and climate changes. Furthermore, we examined the relationships between various water cycle variables through the investigation of vegetation and water coverage changes, and studied the impacts of climate change and anthropogenic activities on the Iraqi Marshes and considered additional ground observations along with the satellite datasets. Statistical analyses over the last 36 years show significant deterioration in the vegetation: 68.78%, 98.73, and 83.71% of the green biomass has declined for Al-Hammar, The Central marshes, and Al-Huwaiza, respectively. The AVHRR and Landsat images illustrate a decrease in water and vegetation coverage, which in turn has led to an increase in barren lands. Unfortunately, statistical analyses show that marshland degradation is mainly induced by human actions. The shrinkage in water supplies taken by Iraq’s local neighbors (i.e., Turkey, Syria, and Iran) has had a sharp impact on water levels. The annual discharge of the Tigris declined from ~2500–3000 m3/s to ~500 m3/s, and the annual discharge of the Euphrates River declined from ~1500 m3/s to less than 500 m3/s.

Effect of Construction Overflow Weir Across Euphrates River in the Chibayish Marshes Region

Developing integrated marches management for restoration of the southern marshes in Iraq require adequate reliable plan. The aim of this study is developing the Chibayish region. In this study, economic feasibility and cost analysis for constructing embankment across Euphrates River and overflow weir are conducted. These structures are used to regulate the Euphrates River during the flood season and the deficit period and improve the quality of water in central marshes. In addition, this feasibility study examines the effect of establishing the controlling regulator on increasing the area of cultivation of the Malha irrigation project and improving the livestock with fish capturing in the region. The economic analysis and feasibility calculations showed that the time of payback period is equal to 7 years after 3 years from the construction time and the rate of the benefit cost B/C is equal to one when the discount rate is equal to 22%. By these results we can consider the project to be economically feasible and can improve the income of local people at Chibayish Marshes region.

Impacts of Mesopotamian wetland re-flooding on the lipid biomarker distributions in sediments

Shallow sediment core samples from two locales in the Mesopotamian marshlands of Iraq were analyzed to characterize the extractable organic (lipid) compounds, and their sources and distributions after hydrological restoration by re-flooding of the marshes. Dried samples were extracted with a dichloromethane/methanol mixture before analysis by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC–MS). The major compounds were n-alkanes, fatty acids and alcohols, steroids, terpenoids, hopanes, steranes, unresolved complex mixture (UCM), and plasticizers. The lipid compounds in Kurmashia (Al-Hammar marshes) were generally higher in concentration than in Abu Zirig (Central marshes), and decreased with core depths for both sites. This concentration decrease with core depth is attributed to transformation, biodegradation and variable input processes. The distribution patterns of the lipids in the sediment cores indicated that the Abu Zirig area was drier than Kurmashia before the re-flooding process. Furthermore, the concentration of the compounds in the surface sediment the Abu Zirig core was as high and similar to that in Kurmashia, reflecting the re-flooding impacts on the marsh and the revival of the wetland. The major sources of these lipids were from natural terrestrial vegetation (35–66% for Abu Zirig; 40–49% for Kurmashia), microbial (plankton) residues and bacteria (27–52% for Abu Zirig; 39–43% for Kurmashia), with a minor contribution from anthropogenic sources including plastic wastes and petroleum (6–13% for Abu Zirig; 9–18% for Kurmashia).

Evaluation of the Ecosystem Services of the Central Marsh in Southern Iraq

Ecosystems provide humans with services that include benefits from food, fresh water, climate regulation, and socio-economic assets. The Mesopotamian marshlands are among the largest wetlands in the Middle East and they provide various benefits. However, ecosystem services of the Marshlands are consistently undervalued in national economic analysis and decision making. This study focusses on the Central Marshes, the first National Park in Iraq, and is the first attempt at valuing a series of ecosystem services from a valuable natural ecosystem in Iraq. We adopted the Toolkit for Ecosystem Services Site-Based Assessment (TESSA) for the determination of biophysical and economic values of services at the site level. Data on key ecosystem services (as determined by 30 interviews with residents of the Marshes) included the trading of fish, harvested plants, water buffalo milk, and fodder were collected across six months in 2014. We valued the ecosystem services within the CM (40,000 ha) over a 6-month period to have a total value of 860,078.23 USD. This estimated total value was the sum of 86,637.25 USD from harvested plants, 551,334.80 USD from trading fish, 167, 303.70 USD from trading water buffalo milk, and 54,804.00 USD from trading fodder. The average income per individual in Iraq in 2014 was 6720 USD (World Bank data - https://data.worldbank.org/country/iraq): thus, the CM provided an average salary for 256 people. Our results provided greater understanding of the ecosystem services contributed by the Central Marshes and has highlighted the crucial role of nature in supporting sustainable well-being for humans living in the area. In addition, the results can be used to enhance local policy, to aid management plans of the National park, and to estimate lost and damage that could result from impact of climate change on the area.

Change detection and building spatial geodatabase for Iraqi marshes

The Iraqi Marshlands has natural and economic potential through its environment rich in various forms of lives. This region has suffered numerous setbacks due to human and natural factors, especially in the last two decades of the last century, which led to significant environmental degradation. The purpose of this paper is to prepare spatial data for the area of the marshes in Iraq as a base (Hour-al Hoveizah and central marshes and Hammar). Also, the other aim is to produce a digital geodatabase for the marshes for the years 1973, 1986, 1999, 2006 and 2016 by using ArcGIS. The process of building geodatabase has been through done in three stages: the first stage is including data collection. The second stage will be by merging the satellite images covering the Iraqi marshes and add to images in order to get the image mosaic process. Also, a georeferencing of satellite images is to be done with all the traditional maps of the same area of the marsh. Finally, complete the full geodatabase for the area of interest by using ArcGIS as the in Cartography Design. The results of this research would be a geodatabase for the Iraqi marshes.

Distributions and Community Composition of Birds in Iraq’s Central Marsh

The Central Marsh (CM) in southern Iraq is known to provide important habitats for both resident and migrant birds. The CM has been used extensively by humans, in part due to its high levels of productivity and biodiversity. It was drained in the 1990s by the government and reflooded and restored in 2003. Recent brief surveys of the CM from 2005 to 2010 recorded 94 bird species. Our study combined transects and point counts in detailed monthly surveys from October 2013 to June 2014 in the CM. We found a total of 125 bird species in the CM across all surveys, with 31 species recorded for the first time in the CM and 11 species categorised as red listed by the IUCN. Fourteen species were confirmed breeding in the CM. Cluster analysis using NMDS ordination showed that the study area can be divided into three main clusters of bird assemblages which are presented here. We provide management recommendations based on our findings.

Soil-Plant Relationships in Mediterranean Salt Marshes across Dune-Cultivated Land Gradient

Landi, M. and Angiolini, C., 2015. Soil-plant relationships in Mediterranean salt marshes across dune-cultivated land gradientThe relationships between soil factors and plant species were investigated in salt marshes on the west coast of central Italy along a dune-cultivated land gradient with similar topographic elevations. Plant community composition was quantified in three zones (marsh-dune border, central marsh, and marsh-cultivated land border) identified across the gradient. The results suggest that the distribution and variation in abundance “performance” of plant species is mainly ruled by salinity and soil texture gradients (from sandy to silt-clay). Texture seemed to affect vegetation zonation in the marshes near sand dunes, since at the marsh-dune border the percentage of wind-blown sand increases. Variations in field capacity, total organic carbon, pH, and calcium carbonate did not appear to control the performance of plant species. Indications on the performance of six species are provided. Limbarda crithmoides increased with the amount of sand and was often located at the marsh-dune border. Elymus repens and Phragmites australis increased with decreasing salinity and were frequently found at marsh borders, however E. repens also increased with the amount of silt-clay. Sarcocornia fruticosa increased with salinity and silt-clay, while Halimione portulacoides increased with salinity and seemed less subject to changes in soil texture. Elymus pycnanthus increased with salinity and decreased with the amount of silt-clay, however, the ordination suggested that other factors may be determinant for this species. These species could be useful to map saline environments and to reconstruct an appropriate scenario in restoration projects of Mediterranean salt marshes.

MODIS Observations of Human-Induced Changes in the Mesopotamian Marshes in Iraq

With a total area of >7,750 km2, the Mesopotamian marshes near the border between Iraq and Iran provide habitats for millions of birds and most of the commercial fisheries in this region. Beginning in the 1990s, human activities such as war, dam construction, restoration, and water supply diversions significantly influenced the ecosystems. Yet, to date only a handful of reports document changes in the marshes, all using field measurements or sporadic satellite observations. Here, using long-term MODIS observations between 2000 and 2012 we quantified the annual changes and long-term trends in both the vegetation and water coverage (i.e., the areas of vegetation and water) in the Al-Hammar, Al-Huwaiza, and the Central marshes, the three major marshes in this region. In addition to seasonality, the most notable patterns are the three distinctive regimes within the observation period: the 2000–2003 regime for low coverage of both vegetation and water, the 2004–2008 regime for significantly increased coverage, and the 2009–2012 regime for reduced coverage (almost back to the 2000–2003 levels). Relative to the 2000–2003 regime, increases in the vegetation coverage during 2004–2008 ranged from 50 to >100 %. It is likely that these changes are the result of human induced activities, with weather fluctuations (e.g., precipitation) playing a minor role. Continuous and sustainable monitoring through combining satellite and field measurements is required to fully understand the consequences of such changes as well as to evaluate the impacts of future restoration programs.

A study of the physical and chemical characteristics of the waters of the central marshes in southern Iraq after restoration

some ecological (physical and chemical varible) of water samples were studies monthly from December 2008 to May 2009 at two stations( St.1) Al - Chibayesh marsh and (St.2) Abu – Zirik marsh which are located in the south of Iraq . These variables included : Temperature, pH, EC, Dissolved oxygen , Total alkalinity, Nitrate, Sulphate, and phosphate, Si-SiO2 and Ca ,Mg, Cl, The marsh Considered as fresh water and alkaline. Abu-Zirik less than Al-Chibayesh.

A study of the physical and chemical characteristics of the waters of the central marshes in southern Iraq after restoration

some ecological (physical and chemical varible) of water samples were studies monthly from December 2008 to May 2009 at two stations( St.1) Al - Chibayesh marsh and (St.2) Abu – Zirik marsh which are located in the south of Iraq . These variables included : Temperature, pH, EC, Dissolved oxygen , Total alkalinity, Nitrate, Sulphate, and phosphate, Si-SiO2 and Ca ,Mg, Cl, The marsh Considered as fresh water and alkaline. Abu-Zirik less than Al-Chibayesh.

Seasonal changes in zooplankton communities in the re-flooded Mesopotamian wetlands, Iraq

Non-directional re-flooding of the wetlands in southern Iraq, which were extensively drained during the 1990s, started in 2003. The change in species composition and abundance of rotifer and cladoceran communities together with their abiotic environment were studied for 15 months in the re-flooded wetlands. The re-flooded wetlands were characterized by higher salinity than typical freshwater inland marshes, and some rotifer and cladoceran species were characteristic of the saline, post-re-flooding environment. The changes in species composition and abundance of rotifers were mostly seasonal, demonstrated by the cyclic changes in principal component analysis and their positive relationships to water temperature. Al-Huwaiza Marsh is distinguished from the other two marshes (Central and Al-Hammar Marshes) and is characterized by relatively lower and stable salinity, close to neutral pH, near or above saturation DO, and lower SO4−2. These characteristics might explain the differences in recovery processes of zooplankton communities among the three marshes. The Jaccard's similarity index for Cladocera revealed similarity between the two stations of each marsh (in terms of maximum densities recorded); however, this was not mirrored by Rotifera. Al-Huwaiza Marsh stations were very similar to each other, whereas the Al-Hammar and Central Marshes had one station of each very similar to the other station of the other marsh. Cladocera and Rotifera are predominantly freshwater species; Rotifera is more sensitive to water quality changes, particularly salinity, than the Cladocera. The observed seasonal cycles of zooplankton communities might suggest that the system was stabilizing during the study period. However, water supply shortages since 2008 continue to threaten the wetlands.

Challenges in using siliceous subfossils as a tool for inferring past water level and hydroperiod in Everglades marshes

Successfully rehabilitating drained wetlands through hydrologic restoration is dependent on defining restoration targets, a process that is informed by pre-drainage conditions, as well as understanding linkages between hydrology and ecosystem structure. Paleoecological records can inform restoration goals by revealing long-term patterns of change, but are dependent on preservation of biomarkers that provide meaningful interpretations of environmental change. In the Florida Everglades, paleohydrological hind-casting could improve restoration forecasting, but frequent drying of marsh soils leads to poor preservation of many biomarkers. To determine the effectiveness of employing siliceous subfossils in paleohydrological reconstructions, we examined diatoms, plant and sponge silico-sclerids from three soil cores in the central Everglades marshes. Subfossil quality varied among cores, but the abundance of recognizable specimens was sufficient to infer 1,000–3,000 years of hydrologic change at decadal to centennial resolution. Phytolith morphotypes were linked to key marsh plant species to indirectly measure fluctuations in water depth. A modern dataset was used to derive diatom-based inferences of water depth and hydroperiod (R2 = 0.63, 0.47; RMSE = 14 cm, 120 days, respectively). Changes in subfossil quality and abundances at centennial time-scales were associated with mid-Holocene climate events including the Little Ice Age and Medieval Warm Period, while decadal-scale fluctuations in assemblage structure during the twentieth century suggested co-regulation of hydrology by cyclical climate drivers (particularly the Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation) and water management changes. The successful reconstructions based on siliceous subfossils shown here at a coarse temporal scale (i.e., decadal to centennial) advocate for their application in more highly resolved (i.e., subdecadal) records, which should improve the ability of water managers to target the quantity and variability of water flows appropriate for hydrologic restoration.

Assessment of Environmental Changes in the Iraqi Marshes by Index of Biological Integrity

Preventing water flow through the marshes in southern Iraq was a policy of the previous regime in Iraq during 1990’s. This phenomena lead to tremendous structural changes in ecosystems, however after 2003 rehabilitation policy applied to the area was implementd in order to re-establish marshes ecosystems. In this study, a zooplankton Index of Biotic Integrity (Z-IBI) was measured for the first time in different sites in the Iraqi marshes. The following eight metrics were used: zooplankton ratio, relative abundance of Calanoid, relative abundance of Cyclopoid, relative abundance of Cladocera, relative abundance of Rotifera, biomass of tolerant species, biomass of sensitive species, and ratio of zooplankton biomass to phytoplankton biomass. Results of application of Z-IBI on the Iraqi marshes in this study indicate a slight improvement of water quality in the central marshes and degradation in other parts of the marshes. This work may fill part of the existing research gap in the application of the IBI index in Iraqi inland waters to illustrate the effects of previous deterioration in water quality.

Dynamics of Alexandrium fundyense blooms and shellfish toxicity in the Nauset Marsh System of Cape Cod (Massachusetts, USA)

Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP) toxins are annually recurrent along the Massachusetts coastline (USA), which includes many small embayments and salt ponds. Among these is the Nauset Marsh System (NMS), which has a long history of PSP toxicity. Little is known, however, about the bloom dynamics of the causative organism Alexandrium fundyense within that economically and socially important system. The overall goal of this work was to characterize the distribution and dynamics of A. fundyense blooms within the NMS and adjacent coastal waters by documenting the distribution and abundance of resting cysts and vegetative cells. Cysts were found predominantly in three drowned kettle holes or salt ponds at the distal ends of the NMS – Salt Pond, Mill Pond, and Town Cove. The central region of the NMS had a much lower concentration of cysts. Two types of A. fundyense blooms were observed. One originated entirely within the estuary, seeded by cysts in the three seedbeds. These blooms developed independently of each other and of the A. fundyense population observed in adjacent coastal waters outside the NMS. The temporal development of the blooms was different in the three salt ponds, with initiation differing by as much as 30 days. These differences do not appear to reflect the initial cyst abundances in these locations, and may simply result from higher cell retention and higher nutrient concentrations in Mill Pond, the first site to bloom. Germination of cysts accounted for a small percentage of the peak cell densities in the ponds, so population size was influenced more by the factors affecting growth than by cyst abundance. Subsurface cell aggregation (surface avoidance) limited advection of the vegetative A. fundyense cells out of the salt ponds through the shallow inlet channels. Thus, the upper reaches of the NMS are at the greatest risk for PSP since the highest cyst abundances and cell concentrations were found there. After these localized blooms in the salt ponds peaked and declined, a second, late season bloom occurred within the central portions of the NMS. The timing of this second bloom relative to those within the salt ponds and the coastal circulation patterns at that time strongly suggest that those cells originated from a regional A. fundyense bloom in the Gulf of Maine, delivered to the central marsh from coastal waters outside the NMS through Nauset Inlet. These results will guide policy decisions about water quality as well as shellfish monitoring and utilization within the NMS and highlight the potential for “surgical” closures of shellfish during PSP events, leaving some areas open for harvesting while others are closed.

Phytoplankton primary production in southern Iraqi marshes after restoration

Primary productivity and chlorophyll-a were used in this study to monitor the restoration process of southern Iraqi marshes (Al-Hewaizeh, central marshes, and Al-Hammar). The phytoplankton primary productivity was based on oxygen light/dark bottle method. Two different depths samples were taken monthly from six studied marshes stations (two stations for each marsh) during November 2005 to October 2006, while chlorophyll-a samples taken from surface water. The phytoplankton primary productivity values ranged 9.38 – 249.79 mg C/m3.hr for all marshes, its values for surface water sample ranged 11.71 – 256.24 mg C/m3.hr, while for 1m depth ranged 9.38 – 142.5 mg C/m3.hr. Chlorophyll-a values ranged between (1.1 – 21.26) µg/l indicating high values of productivity in the studied marshes comparing with other aquatic Iraqi ecosystems. Also, dissolved oxygen and oxygen saturation rate were measured in this study.

Phytoplankton primary production in southern Iraqi marshes after restoration

Primary productivity and chlorophyll-a were used in this study to monitor the restoration process of southern Iraqi marshes (Al-Hewaizeh, central marshes, and Al-Hammar). The phytoplankton primary productivity was based on oxygen light/dark bottle method. Two different depths samples were taken monthly from six studied marshes stations (two stations for each marsh) during November 2005 to October 2006, while chlorophyll-a samples taken from surface water. The phytoplankton primary productivity values ranged 9.38 – 249.79 mg C/m3.hr for all marshes, its values for surface water sample ranged 11.71 – 256.24 mg C/m3.hr, while for 1m depth ranged 9.38 – 142.5 mg C/m3.hr. Chlorophyll-a values ranged between (1.1 – 21.26) µg/l indicating high values of productivity in the studied marshes comparing with other aquatic Iraqi ecosystems. Also, dissolved oxygen and oxygen saturation rate were measured in this study.

Vegetation Response to Re-flooding in the Mesopotamian Wetlands, Southern Iraq

Wetlands in the Mesopotamian Plain in southern Iraq were extensively drained in the 1990s. Re-flooding of drained areas commenced in 2003, and included parts of the Central marsh between the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. New vegetation in the re-flooded areas of the Central marsh was studied in 2006. Most of the wetland plant species and communities widely distributed prior to drainage have reappeared, but there were some species and communities that did not re-establish. Aboveground plant biomass is recovering in some communities, but in most of the new communities, biomass and diversity were low. Post-flooding sites were characterized by higher concentrations of chloride and bicarbonates in surface water and higher percent organic matter in sediment than those prior to drainage. Comparisons among the three study sites in the re-flooded areas and those between pre-drainage and post-flooding sites suggests that differences in water quality, including more saline conditions in the re-flooded wetlands, might be hindering the biomass recovery. The water source being limited to only the Euphrates River, a much more subdued seasonal fluctuation in the quantity of water input and output, and inputs of contaminated waters appear to be responsible for the delay in vegetation recovery in the Central marsh.

Habitat mapping project of the proposed Iraqi Marshlands National Park area

New ecological surveys in support of the creation of the proposed Iraqi Marshlands National Park were undertaken by Nature Iraq in June 2008 at the Central Marshes in southern Iraq. Surveys that occurred in two focal areas - Al Chibaish Marsh (10 sites) and Abu Zirig Marsh (two sites) - were supported by a preliminary land cover survey in November 2007. Satellite images from 2007 for the Central Marshes were acquired to support creation of maps. The “Iraqi Marshlands Habitat Classiffcation System” based on vegetation types has been developed to inventory habitats in these marshlands and to develop a methodology for application elsewhere in Iraq. Six habitat classes (inland running water, river or canal; inland standing water; marsh vegetation; desert; woodlands; and herbaceous vegetation) are included in this classification system, each of which is divided into several subclasses. The dominant habitat subclasses in the Central Marshes study area are: (1) rooted submerged vegetation, (2) helophytic vegetation (reed bed or reed mace bed), (3) free-floating vegetation, (4) terrestrial vegetation-shrub, (5) unvegetated river or canal, (6) unvegetated desert, and (7) flooded communities. This paper constitutes a review of the progress in developing this habitat classification system that remains under development.

Phragmites australis expansion in Delaware Bay salt marshes

Phragmites australis, widespread in tidal marshes of the eastern coast of North America, spreads primarily by the growth of surface runners and underground rhizomes. The distribution of Phragmites, based on maps from aerial photography on Estuary Enhancement Program (EEP) sites of Public Service Enterprise Group (PSEG), was investigated before and after marsh restoration. Initial establishment of Phragmites occurred around 1950 near riverfronts or creek mouths and proceeded upstream. Phragmites expanded to creek bank berms, the tidal/upland edge as well as central marsh plains. Phragmites growth may be characterized into periods of (1) initial establishment, (2) unrestricted expansion, (3) restricted expansion (restricted by open water-creeks, upland borders, or other colonies of Phragmites), and (4) monospecific marsh plains of Phragmites. Intrinsic rate of increase and increase in percent coverage measures for Phragmites growth on the EEP sites are comparable to those of other studies, although some EEP site values are much higher. Describing Phragmites expansion in these terms does not account for the actual distribution and pattern of Phragmites colonies as constrained by tidal creeks and upland boundaries. Therefore, an approach to estimate the actual rate of linear (or “radial”) expansion of Phragmites colonies was developed using standard GIS functions by having colonies represented by an equivalent ellipse having the same area and “diameter” as the colony or polygon. This perimeter expansion rate (PER) appears to estimate the actual growth rate of an advancing front of Phragmites as observed in the field from site maps of Phragmites coverage. This approach, as well as a GIS simulation of Phragmites colony growth, can be used to estimate the density of growing Phragmites rhizome buds (potential for regrowth) following management efforts.