Central Location Test Research Articles

The relative influence of packaging, labelling, branding and sensory attributes on liking and purchase intent: Consumers differ in their responsiveness

The relative impact of several extrinsic attributes on informed hedonic liking and purchase intent for wine is measured by combining a blind hedonic test with an informed tasting of the same wine packaged in different product concepts. This study separated the relative effect of various attributes and also considers differences between consumers in their responsiveness to various product cues. Five-hundred and twenty-one regular wine consumers participated in a central location test in three German cities in 2005. Respondents first rated hedonic liking of a white wine in a blind condition, then evaluated elements of product concepts differing in four extrinsic attributes, region of origin, grape variety, brand and packaging style, before indicating their liking and purchase intent in an informed condition. Overall, label style and brand evaluation were the strongest drivers for informed liking followed by liking in the blind condition. Purchase intent was influenced directly only by informed liking and price evaluation; the effect of the extrinsic and intrinsic cues is mediated through informed liking. A latent class regression resulted in three consumer segments that differ in the responsiveness of their informed liking to the different product characteristics. Younger inexperienced consumers utilised a mix of various cues, wine experienced consumers based their evaluation mainly on grape variety and blind hedonic liking, and older frequent wine consumers were influenced most strongly by brand and packaging. These findings provide insights into the relative impact of product packaging, branding and labelling on overall product liking and indicate strong differences in how consumers respond to different product characteristics.

Influence of brand information on consumers’ expectations and liking of powdered drinks in central location tests

The aim of the present work was to study the influence of brand on consumers’ expectations and liking of orange-flavoured powdered drinks. Ten samples of orange-flavoured powdered drinks were evaluated by 108 consumers who scored their expected liking (looking at the pack only) and the overall liking under blind and informed-testing conditions (tasting the products). Consumers were also asked to answer a check-all-that-apply question with eight statements related to some products’ characteristics and usage occasions. Results showed that brand and package information had a large impact on consumers’ liking scores only for well-recognized brands. Hierarchical multiple factor analysis performed on liking scores for the three evaluation conditions showed that informed liking scores were closer to expected liking scores than to blind liking scores, suggesting that brand information was more important than hedonic reaction to the sensory characteristics in determining consumers’ liking scores for the samples on the informed condition.

EVALUATION OF FARMED COD PRODUCTS BY A TRAINED SENSORY PANEL AND CONSUMERS IN DIFFERENT TEST SETTINGS

ABSTRACT Sensory characteristics of farmed cod exposed to low or conventional stress levels prior to slaughter were evaluated by a trained sensory panel. Consumers in two different settings, central location test (CLT) and home‐use test (HUT), also tasted the products and rated them according to overall liking on a 9‐point hedonic scale and sensory attributes on a 9‐point intensity scale. Differences were observed in texture attributes of the two cod groups by the trained sensory panel. Consumers in the CLT distinguished between the two cod groups whereas consumers in the HUT setting did not. Consumers in the CLT scored the products lower with regard to liking, and evaluated sensory attributes differently from consumers in the HUT setting. The results indicated that the cooking method chosen by consumers in the HUT setting influenced the consumer evaluation of cod. Similar cooking methods used in CLT and HUT produced similar results of liking. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSThis paper presents a comparison of sensory evaluation carried out by a trained sensory panel and consumer evaluation of farmed fish. Cod produced with conventional and reduced stress prior to slaughter differed in texture attributes according to sensory evaluation. Information about consumer liking of the end‐product when changing production systems of farmed fish is very important.The sensory evaluation by a trained panel provides good product knowledge, but to be able to estimate the actual consumer liking of the fish products, consumer studies are needed. The results indicated that a central location test (CLT) could be used to predict consumer acceptance in a real‐life setting, given that similar cooking methods are used in both settings. Fish is a very perishable product, and its sensory quality depends very much on factors such as storage time and preparation. Therefore, CLT may be well suited for consumer testing of fish products.

Use of a test of perceived authenticity to trigger affective responses when testing food

Food developers frequently check the liking for their recipes by asking consumers to state their preferences. This approach is often criticised for the lack of commitment of the participants and the artificiality of the hedonic response. This study tested whether an authenticity test could also be used as an alternative to a traditional hedonic test when evaluating two brands of salted crackers. A group of 244 women were interviewed according to an authenticity test design. A negative affective attitude toward the samples to be evaluated was induced by telling the participants the following upsetting story: “We want to investigate the possibility of replacing the genuine version of our salted crackers brand by a copy manufactured with low-cost ingredients. Of course, the retail price will be the same, even though the ingredients are cheaper”. The participants were then asked to say whether each presented sample (six repetitions of each product) was a genuine one or a copy. At the end of the session, subjects received a new pair of samples and were asked to say which one they preferred. Responses to this preference question were compared to those obtained with a traditional hedonic test run in Central Location Test conditions. Results of the authenticity method show that overall authenticity responses are closely linked to preferences. Besides, these paired authenticity/preference data provide insightful information on the diversity in consumer perception.

Consumer acceptance of Italian or New Zealander lamb meat: an Italian case study

A Central location test was performed to compare heavy Apennine lamb meat to New Zealander lamb meat in order to create a Protected Geographical Indication for lamb meat. Roasted New-Zealander and heavy Apennine lamb legs were tested by 106 consumers according to the following experimental plan: blind phase (B) without any possibility to recognize the meat type tasted, expected phase (E) in which were described the characteristics of the two types of meat without tasting, informed phase (I) in which the tasted meat was recognized in provenience. Results showed in a nine point scale of appreciation for flavour, juiciness and overall pleasure, the highest values in Apennine lamb meat. B test showed the highest value for overall pleasure (P<0.01). Interaction, Italian lamb x Informed test showed the highest values for all the parameters except for overall liking for which Italian lamb x E test showed the highest values. About foreign lamb meat B test showed higher values than I and E test. Information about lamb meat origin showed disconfirmation for tenderness in Italian lamb meat. Foreign lamb meat showed a positive disconfirmation for flavour and overall pleasure, that confirm the better perception by consumers in blind consumption than in the informed one.

THE INFLUENCE OF TESTING CONTEXT ON TEA BAG PRODUCT ACCEPTANCE IN CENTRAL LOCATION TESTS

ABSTRACT We investigate the reliability and predictive power (correspondence with home‐use test [HUT] outcomes) of central location tests (CLTs) using a tea bag product. The setting involves three different CLT testing contexts reflecting “natural versus controlled” approaches: (1) traditional CLT, using controlled testing with ad libitum consumption (n = 47); (2) dosing CLT (DCLT), offering dose choices (sugar and milk combinations) that are different across consumers but similar across samples for individuals (n = 47); and (3) free choice CLT (FCLT), simulating natural tea‐making circumstances and individual brewing preferences (n = 44). CLT results are compared with outcomes from HUTs, employing Pearson correlation coefficients on CLT‐HUT scores as indicators of the ability of CLT outcomes to predict HUT outcomes. Analysis of variance and internal preference mapping methods are also applied. FCLT is found to better discriminate between samples than the other CLTs. However, only the DCLT group revealed a statistically significant (though weak in magnitude) relationship (r = 0.234) between CLT and HUT.PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSCentral location tests (CLTs) are used extensively in sensory research because of their cost‐effectiveness and ease of implementation. However, questions remain about whether CLT responses are consistent with responses from more natural, longer term testing environments. This research studies consumer liking in CLT and compares it with choices of tea made and consumed at home in home‐use tests (HUT). It aims to address two major outcomes from three different CLT testing contexts: (1) the degree of relationship to liking scores derived from long‐term testing in HUT; and (2) ability to distinguish between samples. The testing product chosen here involves complexity in preparation and significant cultural contextual consumption. Thus, the results are expected to contribute to improving design of CLTs to predict long‐term acceptance and choices in food research.

Optimum Level of Salt in French‐Type Bread. Influence of Income Status, Salt Level in Daily Bread Consumption, and Test Location

The objectives of the present study were to measure the ideal salt concentration in French-type bread among Argentine consumers in a home-usage-test (HUT) considering income status and salt content of daily bread consumption as covariables, and to compare the ideal salt concentrations measured in a HUT and a central-location test (CLT). For the HUT, 420 consumers each received a sample of bread with a single salt concentration, and for the CLT, 100 consumers each received 7 samples with different salt concentrations. For each sample, consumers responded if they found the bread "not-salty-enough,""okay," or "too-salty." Neither income level nor salt content of daily bread influenced probability of rejection. The optimum sodium concentrations (milligrams per 100 g of bread dry basis) +/- 95% confidence limits for the HUT and CLT were 980 +/- 74 and 1157 +/- 87, respectively. These values are substantially higher than 628, the mean sodium content of the bread sampled from the bakery shops where consumers bought their daily bread.

LOCATION AND SCALE INFLUENCE ON SENSORY ACCEPTABILITY MEASUREMENTS AMONG LOW‐INCOME CONSUMERS

ABSTRACT The adequate methodology to measure food acceptability among low‐income population was researched. Two locations (home and central locations) and two scales (number and box scales) were tested. One hundred and twelve subjects from low‐income households measured four samples (two chocolate milks and two soups). Samples had higher scores in the home location than in the central location. In the central location consumers were more critical than in the home location test. If sensory acceptability discrimination is of interest, the central location test would be more adequate for low‐income populations. Statistically both scales gave similar results; however, consumers found the number scale more familiar and easier to use. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONSUnderstanding the phenomenon of income‐related food preferences has received little attention in published research. For measuring sensory acceptability among low‐income populations, we have come up with a simple number scale: consumers are instructed to score the sample from 1 to 10, this being a universal scoring system in many countries. If discrimination of sensory acceptability among samples is the objective of the test, central location would be more advisable than a home usage test.

Consumer segmentation based on food neophobia and its application to product development

When evaluating the acceptability of food products, companies often focus on specific demographics for recruiting and screening consumers. However, this information may not necessarily explain the variability in the test results. Other elements, such as consumer psychographic profiles, may help better understand test participants’ responses. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of food neophobia (reluctance to/avoidance of novel foods) on acceptability of novel food items. Six salad dressings with novel flavor combinations were chosen for evaluation in a central location test. Consumers were screened using the food neophobia scale ( Pliner & Hobden, 1992) as well as liking of salad dressings. Each subject evaluated three of six dressings for hedonic and diagnostic attributes. Neophobic subjects rated the salad dressings significantly lower ( p < 0.05) than neophilics for all hedonic attributes with the exception of appearance. These results were consistent for all dressings. However, when looking at the hedonic mean scores from both groups, the products were ranked in similar order in that the best liked and least liked dressing for the neophilic group was the same as those for the neophobic group. For diagnostic attributes, while the mean scores were significantly different for neophobics and neophilics, the percentage of “just-about-right” scores did not differ. These results suggest that food neophobia may impact the degree with which a product is liked or disliked by consumers, but it may not affect how products are ranked based on hedonic mean scores. Therefore, while understanding the psychographic composition of a consumer test respondent base may help explain why some products score higher or lower in acceptability, it may not alter the sensory guidance provided to product development regarding the specific flavor and texture attributes that were tested.

Study of sensory evaluation, consumer acceptability, affordability and market price of rice

AbstractThe purpose of the study was to evaluate consumer acceptance, affordability and market value of a prototype parboiled rice (PPR) in relation to three local samples and a high‐value imported one. While descriptive sensory evaluation and central location testing are used to evaluate consumer acceptability, this study suggests that affordability and market price of rice can also be assessed. The PPR was acceptable and the suggested market price was influenced by both affordability and acceptability. Acceptance scores suggested a potential higher price; consumers discounted the prototype rice and the extent depended on affordability. The concept of consumer acceptability and affordability varied widely among consumers and this was related to the market price, demographics and attitudes towards rice. Sensory attributes associated with quality were positively related with price but negatively with affordability. Acceptability was related to rice consumption and purchasing behaviour, whereas affordability was associated with income, gender and quality perception. Low affordability groups knew the least about the benefits of rice. The implications are discussed. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry

Attributes Critical to Product Acceptance of Chocolate Peanut Cream by Bulgarian Consumers

Abstract Central location tests (CLT) were conducted for five consecutive days to determine consumer acceptance of chocolate peanut cream. Scales for intensity, just-about-right (JAR) and hedonic ratings were used to measure each attribute evaluated. Consumers (n = 152) were asked to rate the intensities of spreadability, chocolate, peanut and overall flavors, and texture using a 9-point scale. JAR scales were used to evaluate the same attributes as well as aroma; while overall acceptance was assessed using a 9-point hedonic scale. Means and frequencies of each sensory attribute were obtained. Chi-square analysis was used to analyze JAR ratings.

Central location test vs. home use test: Contrasting results depending on product type

Marketing professionals and sensory scientists have several hedonic testing methods at their disposal to assess product acceptability. The central location test (CLT) which usually takes place in a standardised location under controlled conditions is more frequently used than the home use test (HUT). Given the artificial conditions of a CLT, it is assumed that a more realistic HUT yields more relevant hedonic data in spite of the uncontrolled conditions. This study compares CLT and HUT results using different types of products. Three experiments were conducted respectively with a fermented milk beverage, salted crackers and sparkling water. For each hedonic test, two samples were presented by a monadic sequential mode. The comparison of CLT and HUT data sets shows that for each category, the products get higher scores when tested at home (HUT) than when tested under CLT conditions. Also, we found that the influence of the method used depends on the type of product to be tested. The conclusion of the hedonic test (i.e. significant difference between the two products) is affected by the method for some products (crackers) whereas the conclusion remains unchanged for other products (fermented milk beverage and sparkling water). In order to explain the varying influence of the tasting conditions, some hypotheses based on the way the products are usually eaten are discussed.

The effects of contextual variables on food acceptability: A confirmatory study

Consumer acceptance of food and beverage was measured in three different settings/locations: a central location test in a laboratory facility, a central location test at one unit of a national chain restaurant and a customer satisfaction survey at the same chain restaurant in multiple cities. Two main dishes (lasagna, cannelloni), salad, breadsticks and iced tea were served either as individual items or as part of a meal. Meal context and the consumer’s ability to choose had the strongest positive effects on acceptance ratings, while social interaction and enhanced environment had no noticeable effects on the acceptability scores. There were significant age and gender effects in the two restaurant settings, but not in the laboratory central location test. The results of this study confirm some of the results of King et al. (2004) [King, S., Weber, A., Meiselman H., & Lv, N. (2004). The effect of meal situation, social interaction, physical environment and choice on food acceptability. Food Quality and Preference, 15, 645–653] on the enhancing effects of context variables on product acceptance, and on how the relationship between context effect and consumer acceptance may not be consistent within and across meal components.

Consumer Acceptance of Bulgarian Peanut Butters Employing Central Location Testing (CLT)

Abstract Peanut butter and peanut butter based products, although flavorful and nutritious, are rarely found in Eastern European diets. To exploit marketing opportunities for peanut products in the region, consumer acceptance of smooth (PBS) and crunchy (PBCN) peanut butters was determined through central location tests (CLT) at an International Food Fair in Plovdiv, Bulgaria. Consumers (147) were asked to rate their feelings about the intensities of spreadability, overall flavor, and texture using a nine-point intensity scale. Just-about-right (JAR) scales were used to evaluate the same attributes and aroma. Overall acceptance was assessed using a nine-point hedonic scale. Descriptive statistics, the paired t-test and chi-square test were used to analyze the data. The cross tabulation indicated that all of the products tested were rated acceptable for consumers of all ages and income ranges. This information provides a basis for introducing peanut butter to the Bulgarian and Eastern European consumers, t...

Comparing central location test and home use test results: Application of a new criterion

Choosing a consumer test methodology is critical for any company sensory scientist. However, we lack tools for comparing the outcome of consumer tests. Here we intended to develop a new comparison criterion based on a concept borrowed from metrology: robustness. We tested this concept with hedonic ratings data obtained from a central location test (CLT) on one hand and from a home use test (HUT) on the other hand. Two fermented milk beverages were tested and both tests were conducted with 240 subjects. The beverages differed in fat and sugar content. The comparison of the CLT and HUT data sets (both in monadic sequential) indicates that the method has a significant effect on the degree of liking. Indeed, the liking scores are lower with CLT than with HUT. Still, both tests lead to the same conclusion that the product with the higher fat and sugar content is significantly more liked. Besides, we developed three graphic representations that illustrate the results stability faced with the decrease in the panel size. These graphs show that CLT yields more robust results than HUT. Additionally the leading role of the panel size is emphasised for both tests. Our data show that the results from the two methods may change as soon as 20 subjects are removed from our original data set. These results that were not unexpected illustrate a fact which is often underestimated in practice.

The effect of meal situation, social interaction, physical environment and choice on food acceptability

Consumer acceptance of food and beverage was measured after modifying four key factors or `context effects' in five consumer central location tests: its function as a meal component, social interaction during consumption, the physical environment in which the food is selected and consumed, and food choice. One of two flavor variations each of salad, pizza and iced tea were served. Acceptance ratings and self-reported food intake were obtained from consumers. In Tests 1–5, context effects were added sequentially, so that by Test 5 all context effects were present. Sixth test served as a comparison to `real life' and took place at a local restaurant. Our hypothesis was that product acceptability would increase with the addition of the various context effects. Meal context had the strongest positive effect on tea; social context had a strong negative effect on pizza; environment had a weak but positive effect on pizza and tea and a negative effect on salad; and choice had a positive effect on salad. These results suggest that context variables do affect product acceptance, but that the relationship between context effect and consumer acceptance may not be consistent within and across meal components.

Consumer Acceptance of American Peanut Products by Bulgarian Consumers

Abstract A 1997 nationwide survey in Bulgaria revealed a high demand for roasted peanuts (Arachis hypogaea L.) and peanut products. The study reported here was conducted to determine the level of acceptance by Bulgarian consumers of three American cultivars of roasted peanuts and to identify the type of commercial peanut butter preferred using sensory affective tests. Consumers (N = 601) participated in central location tests at an international fair in Plovdiv, Bulgaria in May 1999 to evaluate roasted peanuts (spanish type, cv. Georgia Green, and cv. Flavorunner) and three types of commercial American peanut butter [very low sodium (creamy), regular creamy, and extra crunchy]. Each consumer was interviewed and asked to evaluate these products by pointing at a printed 9-point hedonic scale (1 = dislike extremely, 9 = like extremely). Most (98.7%) of the participants were Bulgarian. Ages ranged from 18 to 50 yr (79.9%) or older (20.1%); 53.7% were females. The mean overall acceptance rating for roasted Flavorunner peanuts (6.9, like slightly) was significantly higher (P ≤ 0.05) than that for Georgia Green (6.1, like slightly), which was significantly higher than for Spanish type (5.6, neither like nor dislike). Mean overall acceptance of extra crunchy peanut butter was higher (6.7, like slightly; P ≤ 0.05) than acceptance of regular creamy (6.4, like slightly) and very low sodium (5.4, neither like nor dislike) types. Consumers rated the overall acceptance of regular creamy peanut butter higher (P ≤ 0.05) than that of very low sodium creamy peanut butter. Results of the survey indicate good potential for sale of Georgia Green and Flavorunner roasted peanuts and extra crunchy and regular creamy peanut butter in Bulgaria.

Cyclic presentation order designs for consumer research

Williams Latin square designs are used widely in consumer research to plan complete block experiments. It is demonstrated how these designs are a subset of a wider class of cyclic designs and how alternative designs, for odd numbers of samples p, are preferable both to obtain positional and carry-over balance at twice as many values of n the number of consumers. A consequence is that the new designs give better robustness to the variable number of consumers who turn up at a central location test. An algorithm is described that is used to sample from the wider class of designs and is sufficiently fast to be used for the interactive construction of designs within a computer package. Other specialist designs for situations where there may be factorial structure among the consumers are also described. Tables are given that list the first rows of cyclic designs generated by the algorithm, these give pairs, as well as triples of balanced Latin squares for between five and 19 products. Practical advice is given on how they may be used to construct suitable presentation order designs.

A comparative study of three product acceptability trials

Consumer product acceptability trials can be carried out at the company premises, at a central location (hall) test, or by home test. This paper addresses some of the issues associated with data collected by different types of consumer panels. It looks at consistency of results over the test methods, considering also repeatability of individual consumer judgements. Results indicated similarities and differences between the three data collection procedures. It was found that consumers across the panels were more sure of what they did not like, than what they did. Using the coefficient of variation to measure the repeatability of consumer judgements revealed that, overall, consumers were reliable over a short period of time, with likelihood of purchase proving more variable than the appearance, flavour and texture acceptability measures. The sample that provided the most consistent judgements was the same for both the home and hall test, and was one of the most liked samples. The least consistent samples were also the least liked samples overall. As expected, the likelihood of purchase measurements were less consistent overall than the other acceptability attributes. The preference maps derived from each method, while showing some similarities, would lead to different conclusions, and potentially different decisions being taken in a commercial environment.

Eating disorders in Austrian men: An intra-cultural and cross-cultural comparison study

Measures of product performance that effectively predict food choices are highly sought after. A simple method to add value to simple hedonic data is that of item-by-use (IBU) “appropriateness” or “situational fitness”, where consumers are presented with a list of possible consumption situations and asked to indicate how well a product fits each of them. In a recent paper [Giacalone & Jaeger, 2019], we presented evidence that IBU ratings obtained in response to verbal and pictorial stimuli consistently predicted consumer choice across a diverse range of food and beverage categories. Here, we extend these results to tasted products obtained in four Central Location Tests (CLTs). In all studies, the target products were evaluated by two separate consumer panels, one rating the samples for hedonic and appropriateness (IBU), and the second rating for hedonic and choice likelihood (CL) in response to a target situation. In line with expectations, regression analyses consistently revealed a significant and positive link between IBU ratings and CL, with appropriateness accounting for over 70% of variation in consumer choice. These results confirm that appropriateness predicts food choice even when evaluation depends on sensory modalities such as smell, taste and texture. Taken collectively, these four studies indicate that appropriateness should be considered as an important product performance criterion in CLT evaluations of foods and beverages.