Central Highlands Of Peru Research Articles

To Revive an Abundant Life: Catholic Science and Neoextractivist Politics in Peru’s Mantaro Valley

Since the turn of the twenty-first century, the rapid growth of Peru’s extractive industries has unleashed diverse forms of political resistance to an economic system dependent on ecological destruction and human harm. In the central highlands of Peru, a Catholic scientific project based out of the Archdiocese of Huancayo undertook six years of research on heavy-metal contamination in the Mantaro Valley. This included lead-exposure studies in the notoriously polluted city of La Oroya, home to the country’s largest polymetallic smelter. How did the Catholic Church become an apt institution for the production of science in this region? Drawing on fieldwork with the Revive the Mantaro Project, this article conceptualizes the integration of religious and scientific practitioners and practices and the political landscape that necessitated, shaped, and limited them. Technocratic governance and anti-leftist sentiments made science a suitable political idiom for the Catholic Church to enact its ethos of abundance and demand the legitimacy of life beyond bare life. A state of endemic corruption and epistemic mistrust also obliged Catholic accompaniment to scientific practices to generate trust for the researchers and to provide ethical credibility as their knowledge entered the fray of national mining politics. Ultimately contending with entrenched systems of power, the Revive the Mantaro Project’s significance extended beyond political efficacy; its practices enacted a world of democracy, rights, and legal protections not yet of this world.

Pro-poor? Inclusion and exclusion in native potato value chains in the central highlands of Peru

Including smallholding farmers in high value markets has emerged as a pro-poor development strategy. Through a case study of a project that intended to incorporate native potato growers in the central Peruvian highlands into corporate potato chip value chains, this study investigates social differentiation among participants and nonparticipants, as well as reasons for households’ inclusion or exclusion. Household surveys and semi-structured interviews in one of the communities where the project was implemented provided the data. Results suggest that value chain participants generally have higher economic status and actively exclude lower-resource households in the community. However, non-participation is not necessarily viewed negatively by all non-participating households. Some deliberately choose not to participate to pursue other livelihood strategies or because of risks involved in participating. These findings indicate that participation in value chains is not necessarily beneficial. For such programs to have broad social benefits, policies and other institutional arrangements are needed to minimize risks of participation in such value chains and to provide support for other market outlets.

Identification of an A2 population of Phythophthora andina attacking tree tomato in Peru indicates a risk of sexual reproduction in this pathosystem

Tree tomato, Solanum betaceum, is an Andean fruit crop previously shown to be attacked by Phytophthora andina in Ecuador and Colombia. Blight‐like symptoms were discovered on tree tomato plants in the central highlands of Peru in 2003 and shown to be caused by P. andina. Isolates of P. andina, collected from three different plantations in Peru over a 6‐year time span (2003–2008), were compared genetically with P. andina isolates from Colombia and Ecuador to test whether the pathogen population is geographically structured in the Andes. Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP), mitochondrial DNA and simple sequence repeat (SSR) genetic markers, and mating type behaviour indicated that the Peruvian P. andina population from tree tomato is genetically distinct from populations infecting tree tomato in Colombia (CO‐1) and Ecuador (EC‐3, Ia, A1), but is more similar to the population infecting solanaceous hosts of the Anarrhichomenum complex (EC‐2, Ic, A2). Such geographic substructuring within this pathogen species could result from spatial isolation. Most strikingly, in contrast to the Ecuadorian and Colombian P. andina isolates from tree tomato, the Peruvian isolates have the A2 mating type. The presence of both mating types in the Andean population of P. andina attacking tree tomato indicates a risk of sexual reproduction and the presence of long‐lasting oospores in this pathosystem.

Food access and pro-poor value chains: a community case study in the central highlands of Peru

Pro-poor value chains intend to integrate smallholding farmers into high value markets to contribute to poverty alleviation and food security. Although income benefits of pro-poor value chains have been found, scant evidence exists regarding the potential for these markets to enhance food security. This study focuses on components of food access—dietary diversity, physical and financial access, and social acceptability—among households that participate in pro-poor value chains and non-participating households in the central highlands of Peru where development interventions have created high value market niches for the native potato varieties that smallholding farmers have conserved for thousands of years. Using a mixed methods approach, this study assessed dietary diversity among households that participate and do not participate in pro-poor value chains, as well as their perceptions of their food access. Findings indicated that households that participate in value chains have higher dietary diversity than non-participating households but that these differences are likely due to pre-existing differences in socioeconomic status rather than any causal effect provided by value chains. The study also concluded that while participation in pro-poor value chains sometimes enhance the purchasing power of participating households, they may also weaken financial access, important for both purchasing food and travel to make those purchases. Community perspectives also indicated concerns with the acceptability of diets, which cannot likely be comprehensively addressed by pro-poor value chains. Collectively, the findings from this study cast doubt on the assumption that a linear flow exists between pro-poor value chains and enhanced food access.

Comparison of NCHS-1977, CDC-2000 and WHO-2006 Nutritional Classification in 32 to 60 month-old Children in the Central Highlands of Peru (1992-2007)

Objective. The aim is to compare the three references used for the classification of the nutritional status of 36 to 60 month-old children in Huancayo province (Peru). For a long time, NCHS-1977 reference has been used for child growth monitoring, recently the new WHO-2006 Child Growth Standards is being used, and CDC-2000 reference usage has been restricted. Methods. Data collected from 2640 children over the period 1992 to 2007 served as basis for determining the nutritional children status using Anthro V.3.0 and EpiInfo 6.04. Internationally cutoff points used in every assessed reference system helped to determine the nutritional status and to calculate the Z-scores of height-for-age, weight-for-age, weight-for-height and body mass index differentiated by sex. Results. The underweight, stunting and wasting percentages (period 992-2007), determined with NCHS-1977 reference were 8.4%, 28.8% and 0.9%; with CDC-2000 reference were 10.2%; 19.1% and 3.3%, and with WHO-2006 standard were 6.6%, 33.9% and 1.4% respectively. The overweight and obesity percentages determined with CDC-2000 standard were 11.4% and 4.20%, and with WHO-2006 standard were 8.0% and 0.9%, respectively. Conclusions. A more realistic and accurate detection of malnutrition prevalence in 36-to-60 month-old children from Huancayo province was carried out using the new WHO Child Growth Standard. Using the CDC-2000 standard is recommended in overweight monitoring cases.

Voz de tierra que llama : O cuando el repertorio re-territorializa

This essay focuses on Voz de tierra que llama (1995) by Eduardo Valentin Muñoz, a director and playwright from the central highlands of Peru. This play constitutes a part of the theatrical archive on the problem of the displaced (embodied in the text by a woman). The subject(s) emerged within a socio-political Peruvian context that emerged during the “time of fear” (the last two decades of the 20 th century). In terms of an archive, Voz de tierra que llama narrates the tragedy of eight deterritorialized Andean women who try unsuccessfully to re-territorialize themselves in the city. The play also deals with the return of the displaced to their rural origin. We posit that the reterritorialization portrayed in the play of Valentin Muñoz relates to the reformulation of the use and meaning of the elements of an Andean oral repertoire, a repertoire that the modern systems of representation reject as not responding to the written canon and to literacy. In this sense, we claim that Valentin Muñoz’s play proposes to politicize the use of the Andean “archive” on the trauma brought on by the original deter-ritorialization. The politicization of the arckhe makes it a place of constant tension, resistance, and negotiation.

FRECUENCIA DE LIPIDOSIS HEPÁTICA EN TRUCHA ARCOÍRIS (Oncorhynchus mykiss) DE FASE JUVENIL EN UNA PISCIGRANJA DE LA SIERRA CENTRAL DEL PERÚ

The objective of the study was to determine the frequency of hepatic lipidosis in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) of juvenile phase based on anatomical and histopathological lesions in the liver. The specimens (n=58) were obtained from a commercial fish farm in the central highlands of Peru. The fish were classified as healthy (n=23) and ill (n=35) according to the darkening of the skin and fin erosion. Liver samples were collected, fixed in 10% formalin, and stained with hematoxylin eosin. Results showed that 70.6% (41/58) of the fish had lesions compatible with hepatic lipidosis, where grade 3 had the largest incidence (27.6%). The highest frequency of hepatic lipidosis in grade 3 and 4 was observed in healthy animals.

SEROPREVALENCIA DE PESTIVIRUS DE RUMIANTES EN OVINOS REPRODUCTORES DE UNA EMPRESA DE LA SIERRA CENTRAL DEL PERÚ.

The aim of the present study was to determine the prevalence of Bovine Viral Diarrhea virus (BVDV) and Border Disease virus (BDV) in breeding sheep from a large cooperative farm in the central highlands of Peru. Blood samples from apparently healthy sheep of 4 years old, both sexes (female = 165; male = 165) were collected for antibodies detection against BVDV and BDV using the virus neutralisation test. The 2.1 ± 1.5% (7/330) and 28.5 ± 4.9% (94/330) of breeding sheep had antibodies against BVDV and BDV respectively, with antibodies titers of 1:2 and 1:16. There was significant association between sex and presence of antibodies against BDV (females: 53.3 ± 7.6%; males: 3.6 ± 2.9%) (p<0.05).

Shifting voices, shifting worlds

This paper examines evidentiality and epistemic modality in Quechua narrative discourse from the central highlands of Peru. Huamalíes Quechua falls into the broad Quechua ‘I’ dialect grouping established by Alfredo Torero (1964); evidential usage here can be compared to that of southern Conchucos Quechua as studied by Diane and Daniel Hintz (2007; 2006) while it differs in interesting ways from the Quechua ‘II’ dialects of southern Peru as studied by Faller (2002; 2006). The analysis focuses on an orally performed traditional narrative that deals with the theme of social interaction between a human protagonist and a spirit being of the ‘other world’. It describes the human protagonist’s gradual realization of the nature of the spirit being with whom he has become involved; evidential and epistemic markings grammatically structure this transition from conjecture, to supposition, to direct witness. The aim is to show how the story’s cultural content, and the way in which evidentials and epistemic modality are operationalized, are mutually entailing. Form and content taken together throw light both on how evidentiality and epistemic modality work in social interaction and on how Amerindian understandings of the interface between the ‘natural’ and ‘supernatural’ worlds, and between ‘humans’ and ‘non-humans’, inform grammatical usage.

OBTENCIÓN DE echinococcus GRANULOSUS EN CANINOS INFECTADOS EXPERIMENTALMENTE CON PROTOESCÓLICES DE QUISTES HIDATÍDICOS.

The objective of the present study was to experimentally reproduce the biological cycle of Echinococcus granulosus in dogs. Twelve dogs, 4-50 months old, were infected with 80,000-308,000 protoscolices recovered from lung and liver hidatyd cysts in sheep reared in the central highlands of Peru. Dogs were slaughtered 28-39 days post infection (p.i) and the small intestine was divided in three equal portions (anterior, medium, and posterior) and parasites were counted. The location of parasites in the three portions of intestine was recorded in three dogs. Eight out of 12 dogs resulted positive to the infection and the number of parasites varied from 1,299 till 65,000 per dog. Animals slaughtered on the 28th p.i day resulted negative. The preferred site for parasites was the medium portion of the small intestine. It was shown that the oral inoculation of protoscolices from sheep hydatic cysts was effective to reproduce the biological cycle of the E. granulosus in dogs.

CARACTERIZACIÓN DE LA CITOARQUITECTURA ESPLÉNICA FETAL DE ALPACAS (lama pacos).

The aim of the present study was to determine the spleen cytoarchitecture in alpacafetuses of different stages of development. Sixteen alpaca fetuses were obtained fromfemale alpacas slaughtered in the central highlands of Peru. The fetuses were distributedin six groups according to their fetal age (55, 100, 120, 150, 180, and 200 days). Spleens were dissected and samples were stained with hematoxylin-eosin (cellular distribution),Masson s trichrome (collagen and muscle fibers), and periodic acid Schiff for argenticimpregnation (reticular fibers) for histological evaluation. Macroscopically, the spleen at55 days of age is slightly outlined, at 120 days is lobed with a triangular shape and at 150days had the appearance of the mature animal. Microscopically, at 55 days there is apredominance of transitional embryonic connective tissue to reticular tissue and somelymphoid cells are located in large vessels, plus cells compatible with hematopoieticneststhat are seen in all later stages. At day 100, fibrous connective tissue of the capsuleinfiltrates the parenchymato form trabecules and lymphoid cells form lymphoid cumulithat surround the large vessels. At day 120, lymphoid cumuli can be named as white pulp,and the hematopoietic nests become the erythroid series by day 150. At 180 days, lymphoidfollicles are filled with lymphocytes resembling mature lymphoid follicles, where thecentral arteriole is displaced to the surface. Finally, by day 200, the spleen has similarhistological appearance of the adult.

Seroprevalencia de hidatidosis humana en población adulta de Sancos, Ayacucho 2005

In order to determine the seroprevalence of human hydatidosis in the adult population aged 18 to 65 years residing in the district of Sancos (Ayacucho) in the central highlands of Peru, We developed a descriptive cross-sectional study during the months from May to December 2005. The diagnosis of hydatid disease was first carried out a screening using ELISA and samples were positive, an immunoblot was performed. Of all 355 people surveyed, 13 had positive serology for hydatid disease, representing a prevalence of 3.7% (95%CI: 1.6-5.8%), however only two showed symptoms. The age group with the highest frequency of cases was from 30 to 50 years of age. The livestock herders and livestock traders were the occupational groups most affected. Not found factors associated with the presence of hydatid disease.

Potential of plastic barriers to control Andean potato weevil Premnotrypes suturicallus Kuschel

In potato production systems of the high Andes, Andean potato weevils of the genus Premnotrypes and Rhigopsidius are the most important potato pests. The adults are flightless insects that migrate to potato fields during the potato-growing season, where the larvae damage a high proportion of the tuber harvest. We tested the hypothesis that plastic barriers established at field borders at sowing time are effective management tools to stop Andean potato weevil migration into potato fields, with a consequent reduction in Andean potato weevil tuber damage. In addition, we studied the effect of barriers on carabids, which represent an important insect family in the Andes and are natural enemies of Andean potato weevils. The studies were carried out in 21 on-farm experiments in two villages in the Central Highlands of Peru. The effect of plastic barriers was compared to farmers' practice, consisting of 1–4 insecticide applications per potato-growing season, in participatory research in fallow–potato and potato–potato rotation systems in which the Andean potato weevil Premnotrypes suturicallus Kuschel is endemic. Plastic barriers proved to be highly effective in stopping weevil migration. In screen house experiments only a small proportion (13%) of weevils was able to escape from plastic heights of 25 cm. A height of 50 cm could not be overcome, which was the height used in the on-farm field experiments. The combination of plastic barriers with pitfall traps installed close to the plastic significantly increased the number of Andean potato weevil catches, and proved an effective technology for mass trapping of Andean potato weevil adults. Plastic barriers also affected and increased the number of carabids, mainly of the genus Blennidus, in the pitfall traps. The proportion of carabids was 4–5 times higher in the location in which a lower number of Andean potato weevils and damaged tubers were observed. The results suggest that carabids are important predators of Andean potato weevils. The plastic barriers effectively reduced Andean potato weevils-caused potato tuber damage at harvest. Compared to the farmers' practice of using insecticides, the barriers were equally effective in fallow–potato rotation systems. In potato–potato rotation systems the combination of plastic barrier with one application of insecticide was superior to farmers' practice using 3–4 insecticide applications. The costs for plastic barriers were calculated to be equivalent to two or three insecticide applications per hectare. Plastic barriers are proposed as a new effective component for Integrated Pest Management of Andean potato weevils.

Ruling by Record: The Meaning of Rights, Rules and Registration in an Andean Comunidad

ABSTRACTThis contribution looks at land property relations in a peasant community in the central highlands of Peru. Rather than using a rights‐based approach, the authors propose a ‘practice force field approach’ for their analysis of property relations under communal land tenure regimes. Their study combines qualitative ethnographic case studies with quantitative analysis of data on land distribution. In contrast to rights‐based approaches, this perspective understands the legal discourses that people draw upon to explain property relations as ‘justifying rule talk’ rather than the reflection of a system of property rights. It is shown how property relations are shaped in mediated interactive processes, where official rules, moral principles, shared histories and strategic games come together. The authors use this practice force field approach to study Usibamba, an Andean community that has developed a true disciplinary regime of communal governance based on control over land. The role of ‘rule talk’ and the function of elaborate local systems of land registration are examined in the context of the annual reallocation of communal land. Particular attention is paid to the performance of the president of the comunidad during this delicate process and his reflections on the course of events.

157 FIRST IN VITRO EMBRYO PRODUCTION IN ALPACAS (LAMA PACOS)

The objective was to produce alpaca embryos in laboratory due to its potential role for the multiplication of genetically superior animals and for conservation purposes. Ovaries were collected from an alpaca abattoir located in the Central Highlands of Peru and transported in a thermos flask with warm saline and antibiotics to the laboratory located 200 km away on the coast. Alpaca epididymal sperm to be used for fertilization was previously frozen by diluting in a TRIS-Fructose based extender with 10% glycerol and frozen as pellets in liquid nitrogen vapor. From 31 ovaries, 262 cumulus–oocyte complexes (COCs) were collected (mean of 8.5 COCs per ovary) which were matured in TCM-199 supplemented with 10% heat inactivated FCS plus epidermal growth factor (EGF), FSH, LH, estradiol, and cysteamine for 30 h incubation at 38.5°C, 5% CO2 and 90% humidity. The selected oocytes post-maturation were fertilized with the frozen/thawed sperm that was subjected post-thawing to Percoll gradient (90 and 45% Percoll), centrifugation and resuspension in TALP-IVF medium supplemented with 20 μm D-penicillamine, 10 μm hypotaurine, 1 μm epinephrine and 1.1 μg mL–1 of heparin. The oocytes were inseminated with a concentration of 10 × 106 spermatozoa per drop of 100 mL of fertilization medium containing 30 oocytes each and incubated for 24 h at 38.5°C, 5% CO2 and 90% humidity. The presumptive zygotes were transferred to 200 μL drops (30 zygotes per drop) of SOFaa media supplemented with 5% heat-inactivated FCS which was replaced by SOFaa plus 1% heat-inactivated FCS on day 5 after fertilization. The incubation period post-fertilization was up to day 7 at 38.5°C, 5% CO2 and 90% humidity, when the embryos were inspected and graded. The cleavage rate was evaluated at 72 h post-fertilization and embryo development was evaluated on day 5 and 7 post-fertilization. The cleavage rate was 27.1% (71/262) and the percentage of oocytes that reached the stage of morula and blastocyst was 8.0% (21/262). The percentage of blastocyst that hatched when incubated after day 7 was 14.28% (3/21). The in vitro embryo production in alpacas was successful and suggests the possibility for application in intensive reproduction for conservation of South American camelids and for genetic improvement. Research was partially funded by contributions of BIONICHE and SAIS TUPAC AMARU, Junin, Peru.

Protein, iron, zinc and calcium concentrations of potatoes following traditional processing as “chuño”

Samples from unprocessed and processed cooked tubers of the nine most abundant potato cultivars used to prepare the traditional freeze-dried food product, “chuño” in the central highlands of Peru were prepared and analyzed for their protein and mineral concentrations. The protein, iron, zinc and calcium concentration of cooked chuño of the nine cultivars evaluated ranged from 0.49 to 1.15 g, from 0.29 to 0.65 mg, from 0.04 to 0.14 mg and from 18.9 to 31.0 mg per 100 g on a fresh weight basis, respectively. Potatoes processed as chuño have a lower concentration of protein and zinc than unprocessed tubers, and a higher content of calcium, while iron concentration may be expected not to be subjected to changes. Water used in preparing the chuño is suggested to be the cause for an increased calcium concentration in the final product, as the water used had higher calcium content before (1.35 mequiv./l) than after (0.84 mequiv./l) use in the preparation. Thus, water seems to be source of the increased calcium concentration.

Genetic diversity and host differentiation among isolates of Phytophthora infestans from cultivated potato and wild solanaceous hosts in Peru

To test the hypothesis that isolates of Phytophthora infestans attacking wild Solanaceae exhibit specialization for particular host species, 115 isolates of P. infestans were collected from cultivated potatoes, nontuber‐bearing Solanum spp. of the Basarthrum section and wild tomatoes from five departments in the northern and central highlands of Peru, and characterized using several neutral markers. All isolates belonged to one of four clonal lineages described previously in Peru: EC‐1, US‐1, PE‐3 and PE‐7. There was a strong association of three lineages with host species: PE‐3 was only isolated from cultivated potato, while PE‐7 and US‐1 were only isolated from nontuber‐bearing Solanum spp. (Basarthrum section and wild tomatoes). EC‐1 was isolated from all host groups sampled. A subset (n = 74) of the isolates was evaluated for metalaxyl resistance. High levels of resistance were found almost exclusively in EC‐1 and PE‐3, while US‐1 and PE‐7 isolates were generally sensitive. In a detached‐leaf assay for lesion diameter using five EC‐1 isolates from S. caripense and seven EC‐1 isolates from cultivated potato, there was a significant interaction between isolate origin and inoculated host, caused by higher aggressiveness of EC‐1 from cultivated potato on its host of origin. In a comparison of EC‐1 (seven isolates from cultivated potato) and US‐1 (three isolates from S. caripense), each pathogen lineage was more aggressive on its original host species, causing a highly significant interaction between isolate origin and inoculated host. Wild tomatoes and nontuber‐bearing Solanum spp. harbour several pathogen lineages in Peru and could serve as reservoirs of inoculum that might contribute to epidemics on potato or tomato. Potential risks associated with the use of wild Solanum hosts as sources of resistance to P. infestans are discussed.

Host Specialization not Detected Among Isolates of the EC-1 Lineage of Phytophthora infestans Attacking Wild and Cultivated Potatoes in Peru

To determine whether populations of Phytophthora infestans attacking wild and cultivated potatoes in the highlands of Peru are specialized on their hosts of origin, we characterized isolates using several neutral markers, metalaxyl resistance and for aggressiveness in a detached leaf assay. One hundred and fifty-three isolates were collected from the northern and central highlands of Peru from different potato cultivars (both modern and native cultivars) and from different species of wild, tuber-bearing potatoes. All the isolates analyzed belonged to one of four clonal lineages that had been described previously in Peru: EC-1, US-1, PE-3 and PE-7. The EC-1 lineage (n = 133) was dominant and present in similar frequencies on wild and cultivated potatoes. PE-3 (n = 14) was found primarily on cultivated potatoes, with only one isolate coming from a wild host. US-1 (n = 2) and PE-7 (n = 4) were rare; all but one (PE-7) occurred on wild potatoes. Isolates from the EC-1 lineage from modern cultivars were compared in three separate detached leaf inoculation assays with EC-1 isolates from the wild potato species S. sogarandinum, S. bill-hookerii or S. huancabambense, respectively. No significant interactions between isolate type (from wild or cultivated potato) and host type (wild or cultivated) were measured for any assay. It appears that the pathogen genotypes in the EC-1 lineage indiscriminately attack both wild and cultivated tuber-bearing solanaceous hosts in Peru, and breeders should be able to select for resistance using the common EC-1 lineage.

Influence of a flavonoid (formononetin) on mycorrhizal activity and potato crop productivity in the highlands of Peru

Mycorrhizal fungi serve as biofertilizers, reduce plant stress, and can increase plant productivity. Since the potato originated from the highlands of Peru and Bolivia, a goal of this research was to utilize indigenous Peruvian mycorrhizal populations to enhance crop productivity in a subsistence production site. The field study was also conducted to test the effectiveness of the flavonoid, formononetin, to stimulate native mycorrhizal activity and subsequent yield of six Andean potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars. The subsistence site was located at an altitude of 3900 m (61 kPa) in San Jose de Aymara (Department of Huancavelica), in the central highlands of Peru. This is approaching the highest altitude in the world that potatoes are grown. The site had a sandy–loam soil with pH 3.6, low phosphorus (P) availability and high aluminum (Al). Tubers were planted in November 1999, and grown during the rainy season. Minimal organic fertilizer was applied and the potato crop received no supplementary irrigation. Formononetin was applied as a soil drench when shoots from tubers began to emerge. At the end of the 6.5 month study, formononetin increased either potato tuber dry mass and/or Nos. 1 and 2 grade tubers in three of the six cultivars. Soil sporulation of indigenous mycorrhizae was increased more than three-fold by formononetin. There were differences in total mycorrhizal colonization among the six cultivars. The predominant arbuscular mycorrhiza genera at the site were Gigaspora, Glomus and Scutellosporas.

Cultural Evolution in the Lake Titicaca Basin: Empirical Facts and Theoretical Expectations

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size Dr. WILLIAM H. ISBELL is Professor of Anthropology at the State University of New York at Binghamton. A New World archaeologist and Latin American prehistorian specialized in the development of complex societies and the nature of social inequality, he is recognized as one of the foremost authorities on the Andean Middle Horizon. Professor Isbell has excavated extensively in the heartlands of both of the famous Middle Horizon capitals, Huari and Tiahuanaco, and has written and edited numerous books and articles about them as well as related topics. His writings examine cultural evolution (especially state origins) as well as architecture, place and landscape (currently focusing on palaces and elite mortuary monuments), meaning in material cultural (particularly iconography and art), and issues of continuity and change in prehistoric and historic Andean culture. He is concerned about the ways archaeologists construct knowledge, and particularly how theory and other assumptions influence thinking about the past. His recent books include Mummies and Mortuary Monuments: A Post-Processual Prehistory of Andean Social Organization, and the coedited volumes Andean Archaeology Vol. I (Variations in Sociopolitical Organization), and Vol. II (Art, Landscape and Society). He is currently coediting Andean Archaeology Vol. III (North and South) as well as the Handbook of South American Archaeology. Currently, Dr. Isbell codirects the Conchopata Archaeological Project in the Central Highlands of Peru. Notes 1 Following my recent suggestion (Isbell, 2002 Isbell, W. H. 2002. “Las Islas del Sol de la Luna, ¿Fue este importante santuario incaico un centro religioso primario de civilizaciones andinas más antiguas? Una reseña y critica”. In Huari y Tiwanaku: Modelos vs evidencias, segunda parte. Boletín de Arqueología PUCP, Edited by: Kulicke, P. and Isbell, W. H. 647–651. Lima: Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú. Departamento de Humanidades, Especialidad de Arqueología [Google Scholar]) for clarifying spelling as well as understandings of the Middle Horizon, I employ “Wari” to refer to archaeological sites, materials, and prehistoric culture outside the capital city. I employ “Huari” to indicate the city, its urban heartland, and all that it contained.