Central European Conditions Research Articles

Age and gender as independent predictors of violence under the influence of alcohol in Zurich, Switzerland.

Violent behaviour associated with alcohol consumption is frequently reported by different media. Clinical data analysing the correlation between alcohol intoxication, age, gender and violence are scarce. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of age, gender and blood alcohol content on violent behaviour under the influence of alcohol under central European conditions. Three hundred patients admitted to the emergency department were included into this study in the time period from January 01. to December 31. 2009. The inclusion criteria were a blood alcohol content (BAC) of ≥10 mmol/l, any traumatic injury and an age ≥16 years. Violence was defined as an evitable act committed by others leading to patient's hospitalisation. The data were compared with Wilcoxon and χ2-test for proportions. The data were considered as significant if p<0,05. Predictive quality was evaluated by using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve. Independent predictors were analyzed by logistic regression analysis. The average age was 36,9±16,9 years (range: 16-84 years), 259 (86%) males and 41 (24%) females. There was a significant difference in gender (odds ratio for gender male 2,88; CI 95%: 1,24-6,67; p<0,001) and age dependent (odds ratio for each year of age 0,94; CI 95%: 0,93-0,96; p<0,0001) violence with no correlation to blood alcohol content found. Logistic regression analysis revealed male gender and young age as an independent predictor for violence. These results clarify the relationship between alcohol, age, gender and violence and have important implications for municipal-level alcohol policies.

Evaluation of monocropped and intercropped grain legumes for cover cropping in no-tillage and reduced tillage organic agriculture

Intensive tillage by means of mouldboard ploughing can be highly effective for weed control in organic farming, but it also carries an elevated risk for rapid humus decomposition and soil erosion. To develop organic systems that are less dependent on tillage, a two-year study at Reinhardtsgrimma and Köllitsch, Germany was conducted to determine whether certain legume cover crops could be equally successfully grown in a no-till compared with a reduced tillage system. The summer annual legumes faba bean (Vicia faba L.), normal leafed field pea (Pisumsativum L.), narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus L.), and common vetch (Vicia sativa L.) were examined with and without sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) as a companion crop for biomass and nitrogen accumulation, symbiotic nitrogen fixation (N2 fixation) and weed suppression. Total cover crop biomass, shoot N accumulation and N2 fixation differed with year, location, tillage system and species due to variations in weather, inorganic soil N resources and weed competition. Biomass production reached up to 1.65 and 2.19Mgha−1 (both intercropped field peas), and N2 fixation up to 53.7 and 60.5kgha−1 (both common vetches) in the no-till and reduced tillage system, respectively. In the no-till system consistently low sunflower performance compared with the legumes prevented significant intercropping effects. Under central European conditions no-till cover cropping appears to be practicable if weed density is low at seeding. The interactions between year, location, tillage system and species demonstrate the difficulties in cover crop species selection for organic conservation tillage systems.

Nitrogen yield and nitrogen use of chickpea compared to pea, barley and oat in Central Europe

European agriculture suffers from a substantial deficit of protein sources for livestock and the projected changes in agro-climatic conditions in Central Europe include a higher risk of drought. To address these challenges, the drought resistant legume crop chickpea was compared with pea, barley and oat regarding its nitrogen (N) yield, protein yield and N use and utilization efficiency under Central European growing conditions. The two year trial was conducted in eastern Austria with calcium ammonium nitrate or the depot fertilizer Basacote® Plus 6M at two levels of N rate each besides an unfertilized control. In 2006, chickpea had the lowest grain yield and grain N yield among the four crops while under drought conditions in 2007 chickpea attained a higher grain protein yield that surpassed those of barley and oat. Under both, the more humid conditions in 2006 and the drier weather in 2007, chickpea maintained a constant partial factor N use efficiency (PFNUE: grain yield per unit fertilizer N) and a consistently high N utilization efficiency (NUtE: grain yield per unit N in the above-ground dry matter) for grain production whereas these parameters were severely decreased by drought with pea, barley and oat. Results indicate that chickpea could be an alternative in a future more dry climate for achieving a reasonable protein yield in Central Europe through its ability to maintain high PFNUE and NUtE under conditions of drought.

The perspectives for genetically modified cellulosic biofuels in the Central European conditions

This paper connects the biofuels literature with the genetic modifications literature by considering the potential of genetic modifications for increasing the efficiency of the cellulosic biofuels production. This is done for one particular case through analyzing the effect of genetically modified corn adoption on the overall yields of corn for silage. Our econometric model confirms that the use of genetically modified corn with the inserted MON810 gene increases the overall corn biomass yield in the production and environmental conditions of the Central Europe, in particular in the Czech Republic. &amp;nbsp;

Influence of sycamore seed stratification length on their germination capacity

Sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) seeds are frequently used in forest nurseries and therefore the knowledge of their proper treatment is desirable. Seed stratification recommended by the Czech standard is two months but there are not many studies which review the appropriate length in Central European conditions. The paper evaluates the influence of seed stratification length on their germination capacity. The seed samples were treated in different ways to evaluate their reaction to these different handling conditions. The data proved a significant increase of germination after 42 days of stratification. The data also suggests that the better stratification medium is a substrate than wet filter paper. &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;

On the abundance and source contributions of dicarboxylic acids in size-resolved aerosol particles at continental sites in central Europe

Abstract. Dicarboxylic acids (DCAs) are among the most abundant organic compounds observed in atmospheric aerosol particles and have been extensively studied at many places around the world. The importance of the various primary sources and secondary formation pathways discussed in the literature is often difficult to assess from field studies, though. In the present study, a large data set of size-resolved DCA concentrations from several inland sites in Germany is combined with results from a recently developed approach of statistical back-trajectory analysis and additional data. Principal component analysis is then used to reveal the most important factors governing the abundance of DCAs in different particle size ranges. The two most important sources revealed are (i) photochemical formation during intense radiation days in polluted air masses, likely occurring in the gas phase on short timescales (gasSOA), and (ii) secondary reactions in anthropogenically influenced air masses, likely occurring in the aqueous phase on longer timescales (aqSOA). While the first source strongly impacts DCA concentrations mainly in small and large particles, the second one enhances accumulation mode DCAs and is responsible for the bulk of the observed concentrations. Primary sources were found to be minor (sea salt, soil resuspension) or non-existent (biomass burning, traffic). The results can be regarded as representative for typical central European continental conditions.

Enhancing wasteland vegetation by adding ornamentals: Opportunities and constraints for establishing steppe and prairie species on urban demolition sites

Following economic or demographic decline, many cities undergo extensive structural changes which often lead to large wasteland areas. Adding aesthetically attractive ornamental species to such sites has been proposed as a low cost approach to integrate wastelands into urban greenspace systems and enhance their acceptance by residents. Species from North American prairies and Eurasian steppes are expected to persist on urban sites despite low maintenance, but this idea has not yet been tested under Central European conditions. On urban demolition sites in Berlin, we established a randomised block design with mixtures of introduced species from either tall grass prairies or steppes. To test a low cost approach, the sites were mown once in autumn and never irrigated. Steppe species showed significantly higher mean survival rates (61%) than prairie species (19%). Competition from co-occurring wasteland species adversely affected prairie species but not steppe species. The second year after planting, survival rates declined due to a severe summer drought. Steppe species likely performed better because, in their native range, drought stress in spring and summer is common. Contrasting, prairie species are adapted to high precipitation during their major development period in North America. Nevertheless, three prairie and eight steppe species showed mean establishment rates >50% and obviously coped with the severe site conditions. Our results demonstrate opportunities for adding ornamentals to wastelands. In the face of a limited water supply, using robust steppe species appears most promising. Integrating regular irrigation into maintenance schemes could enhance the establishment of prairie species.

Nitrogen Concentrations and Nitrogen Yields of Above-Ground Dry Matter of Chickpea during Crop Growth Compared to Pea, Barley and Oat in Central Europ

Alternative crops like chickpea could become of interest under Pannonian climate conditions in Central Europe due to forecasted changes in climate. Therefore a two-year trial was conducted to evaluate concentrations, uptake and yields of nitrogen (N) during crop growth of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) compared to pea (Pisum sativum L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and oat (Avena sativa L.) as affected by N fertilization with either calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) or the depot fertilizer Basacote® Plus 6M (DF) in eastern Austria. Chickpea had the lowest above-ground dry matter (AGDM) and N yields among the four crops in 2006; however, it could gain higher AGDM and N yields than those of barley and oat under drought conditions in 2007. N concentrations and N yields throughout crop growth were increased by increasing rates of N fertilization (with CAN showing generally higher values than DF). Chickpea had a high crop N uptake rate and a high relative N uptake rate even under drought conditions. Thus, results indicated that chickpea could be an alternative crop in dry environments for achieving reasonably N yields in Central European growing conditions

Antioxidant and radical scavenging activities in fruits of 6 sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) cultivars

Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) is a minor fruit crop. The most important breeding activities focused on the production of sea buckthorn fruits as a top-quality food product have been performed in Russia, Germany, and the Czech Republic. Over the past several decades, plant breeders have selected a number of cultivars that show excellent physical and nutritional properties. The aim of this study was to monitor and determine the total contents of phenols and flavonoids as well as antioxidant capacity and scavenging activity of methanolic extracts on reactive oxygen species and lipid peroxidation in some cultivars of sea buckthorn suitable for growing in Central Europe. Altogether, 6 cultivars of this fruit species presented total phenolic contents ranging from 8.62 g of gallic acid kg^{-1} of fresh mass to 14.17 g of gallic acid kg^{-1} of fresh mass. There were high correlations between the contents of phenols and flavonoids on the one hand and the antioxidant properties of sea buckthorn berries on the other. This study indicates that for Central European conditions, sea buckthorn is a promising fruit species that can be used for consumption due to its antioxidant properties.

Yield of bolting winter beet (Beta vulgaris L.) as affected by plant density, genotype and environment

Winter beet roots and shoots might be a favorable substrate for biogas production in Central Europe. However, detailed information about the attainable yield of this crop is lacking. Thus, the impact of plant density, genotype and environmental conditions on total dry matter yield of winter beet crops that bolt after winter was investigated. A significant increase of the dry matter yield (esp. shoot) was expected by harvesting the 1st shoot after flowering in June followed by a final harvest of the whole plant in July. In 2009/10, 2010/11 and 2011/12, three series of field trials with (i) 3 target plant densities (148, 246, 370 thousand plants ha−1) and (ii) 3 different sugar beet genotypes were conducted at Göttingen (Lower Saxony, GER) and Kiel (Schleswig-Holstein, GER); (iii), additional field trials with 5 different sugar beet genotypes cultivated at 2 target plant densities (148, 246 thousand plants ha−1) were conducted in 2011/12, to investigate the relation between maximum taproot diameter and the shoot and taproot yield of bolting winter beet. The total dry matter yield considerably varied between 4 and 23tha−1. It was predominantly affected by the environment and to a substantially lower extent by plant density. Increasing plant densities increased the total dry matter yield, resulting in a significantly higher total dry matter yield at plant densities ≥300,000plantsha−1 compared with lower plant densities. Genotypic differences in total dry matter yield were negligibly small. Pruning in June substantially increased the total dry matter yield in July by ca. 8tha−1 only in one out of three environments.Final yield in June (without pruning) and July (pruning in June) was positively related with cumulated temperature and global radiation, but also with taproot dry matter yield before winter. The taproot, shoot (1st, 2nd) and total plant yield were positively correlated with maximum taproot diameter.In conclusion, high dry matter yields close to yields of established energy crops grown over winter were obtained with winter beet roots and shoots only under very favorable conditions (climate, single plant size). High yields can be achieved after good pre-winter development. However, for sufficient frost tolerance the taproot size of plants must be rather small. Hence, the cultivation of bolting winter beet under Central European climate conditions has to face a severe conflict of goals concerning winter survival and yield formation.

Phenotype related differences in frost tolerance of winter sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.)

The cultivation of sugar beet as a winter crop might improve its economic performance by extending the sugar factories’ processing campaign and/or increasing the taproot yield. Adequate frost tolerance is one major prerequisite for successfully cultivating winter sugar beet under Central European climate conditions. Among others, phenotypic plant properties such as taproot size before winter are known to have a strong effect on overwintering success. The aim of our study was to comprehensively evaluate the influence of plant phenotype in relation to winterly weather conditions on frost tolerance and crop survival. Therefore, a series of field trials was conducted at different environments, each having different sowing dates (April, June, August) and plant densities (148, 246, 370 thousand plants ha−1) to generate high phenotypic variation. Frost tolerance mainly depended on the winter conditions, with the minimum air temperature and the presence of a protecting snow or straw cover during frost periods being crucial. Moreover, the frost tolerance was highly dependent on the plant size measured by the taproot diameter, with highest survival rates at ca. 1–2.5cm; the optimum size appeared to be independent from plant age (sowing date). Optimal sized plants were most frequently obtained from sowing in August. Such plants tolerated freezing events of the taproot tissue down to ca. −4.5°C (air temperatures down to ca. −15 and at least −21°C for bare and covered crops, respectively), while larger taproots got frost damaged at ca. −1.5°C. Higher taproot tissue concentrations of the solutes K, Na, amino N, but not sugar, contributed to the higher frost tolerance of optimal sized sugar beets. Moreover, a lower amount of extracellular water in taproot tissue was likely to explain the differences.

Spatio-temporal patterns along a primary succession on alluvial sediments

Abstract Dynamic alluvial landscapes offer many possibilities to study primary succession processes on newly developed habitats. However, within the Central European environmental conditions, where watercourses and their riparian spaces are under severe anthropogenic pressures — water regulation, deforestation, lowering of groundwater — natural processes are limited. We studied primary succession on alluvial stream deposits in an artificial lake, where we aimed to follow the terrestrialisation rate and habitat turnover, along with plant species richness and composition across successional stages. In 30 years, a pristine white-willow riparian forest developed. One half of the initially aquatic habitat became terrestrial. The frequency of change, studied on 11250 quadrats 10×10 m each (on a scale from “no change” to 8 changes) and the mean of change per habitat type (most of the habitats changed 2 to 3 times) revealed only one successional trajectory. The percentage flow chart showed a deterministic pathway of succession. The “time since formation” of a terrestrial habitat shows that more than 20% of the lake was terrestrialised within in the first ten years. We studied species richness and composition along three composed transects, following successional stages. We found that the newly assembled riparian white willow woodland has a surprisingly low colonisation rate of plant species.

Economic potential of demand response at household level—Are Central-European market conditions sufficient?

Abstract The aim of this paper is to show the economic potential of demand response (DR) on household level at Central European market conditions. Thereby, required economic benefits for consumers' participation, the realistic load shifting potential at household level and the estimation of essential intelligent infrastructure costs are discussed. The core of this paper builds a case-study applying spot market-oriented load shifting from the supplier's point of view by using Austrian electricity market data, household load profiles as well as a heat pump and e-car charging load profile. It is demonstrated which cost savings for suppliers can be derived from such load shifting procedure at household level. Furthermore, upper cost limits for intelligent infrastructure in order to break-even are derived. Results suggest to take a critical look at European discussions on DR implementation on household level, showing that at Central European market conditions the potential for DR at household level is restricted to significant loads and hence, the applied load shifting strategy is only beneficial with application to heat pumps. In contrast, the frequently discussed shifting of conventional household devices' loads (such as washing machines) economically does not add up.

Influence of Climate and Land Use Change on Spatially Resolved Volatilization of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) from Background Soils

The subject of this study is the assessment of the influence of climate and land use change on the potential re-emission of organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) from background and agricultural soils. A deterministic spatially and temporally explicit model of the air-surface exchange was created, fed with distributed data of soil and atmospheric concentrations from real measurements, and run under various scenarios of temperature and land use change for a case study area representative of central European conditions. To describe land use influence, some important features were implemented including effect of plowing, influence of land cover, temperature of soil, and seasonal changes of air layer stability. Results show that volatilization of pesticides from soil largely exceeded dry gas deposition in most of the area. Agricultural soils accounted for more than 90% of the total re-emissions both because of the generally higher soil fugacities (higher loads of chemicals and relatively low organic carbon content), but also due to physical characteristics and land management practices enhancing the dynamics of the exchange. An increase of 1 °C in air temperature produced an increase of 8% in the averaged total volatilization flux, however this effect can be neutralized by a change of land use of 10% of the arable lands to grassland or forest, which is consistent with projected land use change in Europe. This suggests that future assessment of climate impact on POP fate and distribution should take into consideration land use aspects.

An environmental impact calculator for greenhouse production systems

Multiple web-based calculators have come on the market as tools to support sustainable decision making, but few are available to agriculture. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has proved to be an objective, transparent tool for calculating environmental impacts throughout the life cycle of products and services, but can often be too complex for non-specialists. The objective of this study was therefore to develop an environmental support tool to determine the environmental impacts of protected crops. An effort was made to provide an easy-to-use tool in order to reach a wide audience and help horticulture stakeholders choose efficient options to mitigate the environmental impacts of protected crops. Users can estimate the environmental performance of their crops by entering a limited amount of data and following a few easy steps. A questionnaire must be answered with data on the crop, greenhouse dimensions, substrate, waste management, and the consumption of water, energy, fertilisers and pesticides. The calculator was designed as a simplified LCA, based on two scenarios analysed in detail in previous tasks of the EUPHOROS project and used as reference systems in this study. Two spreadsheets were provided based on these reference scenarios: one for a tomato crop in a multi-tunnel greenhouse under Southern European climate conditions and the other for a tomato crop in a Venlo glass greenhouse under Central European climate conditions. The selected functional unit was one tonne of tomatoes. Default data were given for each reference system for users who did not have complete specific data and to provide results for comparison with users' own results.The results were presented for water use as an inventory indicator and for the impact categories abiotic depletion, acidification, eutrophication, global warming, photochemical oxidation and cumulative energy demand. In the multi-tunnel greenhouse, the main contributors based on the default data were the structure, fertilisers and auxiliary equipment, whereas, for the Venlo glass greenhouse, the main contributors were energy consumption for heating and, to a lesser extent, the structure. The results were evaluated for alternative options of electricity, fertilisers, pesticides and means of transport, as these areas were found to have potential variability, depending on the characterisation model and datasets used.The resulting calculator is a useful tool to simulate the environmental performance of protected horticultural production systems and is also helpful to growers and advisers for evaluating the efficiency of input reduction options.

The South Hesse Oak Project (SHOP): Species- and site-specific efficiency of the photosynthetic apparatus of Mediterranean and Central European Oaks

In three experimental sites in Southern Hesse, differing in management procedures, one- to three-year-old saplings of Quercus robur, Q.pubescens, and Q.ilex were planted to study their performance under Central European climate conditions. Toward the end of the growth period (mid–late September 2011), during a very dry period, we measured JIP transients of photosystem II chlorophyll fluorescence induction curves to evaluate the effects of abiotic site factors on the photosynthetic apparatus by comparing them to data from well-watered saplings measured before the onset of senescence processes. In all three sites, Q. robur saplings in September showed the strongest deviation from the measurements in August, followed by Q. pubescens. Q. ilex, in general, was nearly unaffected by September climate conditions or performed better than plants measured in August. Differences in the behavior between species and sites could be explained by the species’ different drought susceptibility and by differential induction of early leaf senescence (in Q. robur and Q. pubescens). We conclude that measurement of the JIP transient is a feasible method in forestry to compare adverse microclimatic site effects and genetically fixed reactions of the photosynthetic apparatus in the field.

Monitoring and conservation of Saga pedo (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) in an isolated nothwestern population

The bush cricket Saga pedo is a critically endangered species in the EU and is included in Annex IV of Council Directive 92/43/EEC. This species is therefore subject to mandatory regular monitoring within all member countries where it occurs. Because its abundance is low and little information is available concerning its ecology, however, an effective monitoring method that would yield standardized results has yet to be devised. We found S. pedo passing through 6 instars during its development in Central European conditions. Our findings indicate that, after hatching, S. pedo moves constantly through terrain with optimal vegetation and thereby reduces its population density. Based on recaptures of marked individuals, adults moved usually between 0.5 and 2 m in 24 h, the largest distance moved during a day was recorded as 37.5 m. Combined with a high mortality rate, this continual movement leads to very low density late in the season. Based on extensive surveys conducted during 2006–2011 at 10 sites in the Palava Protected Landscape Area (Czech Republic), we show that the optimal time for monitoring in order to achieve comparable results from different investigators in different locations is the period just after nymphs hatch (1–10 May in Central Europe). Because S. pedo populations in Europe are threatened by habitat destruction resulting from successional overgrowth of habitat by vegetation and afforestation, ensuring the survival of this species will require that successional changes in vegetation and afforestation be stopped by mowing and removal of woody plants and seedlings or by farming (extensive grazing). Management need not be performed every year but should occur when the S. pedo population is already adult and dispersed. The most suitable period for partial machine mowing (1/3–1/2 of a specific area) is September. Mowing with scythes and extensive rotational grazing are the best methods for managing sites where S. pedo is found.

Screening a cucumber crop during leaf area development reduces yield

AbstractIn order to reduce heat energy consumption in greenhouse cucumber production, (transparent) screens may be used also during the day, particularly in the early growth phase when high temperatures are required to achieve rapid leaf area development. However, energy savings must be optimised against light reduction‐induced yield loss. For this reason, two experiments were conducted to quantify the effect on photosynthesis and growth of screening cucumber plants during their early growth phase, and on yield in the following generative phase. Screening with different light transmission coefficients was simulated using shading nets. Shading the plants during the first 5 weeks under Central European winter conditions reduced the leaf area by 0.40% per 1% reduction in photosynthetic active radiation (PAR). Moreover, potential leaf net photosynthesis decreased by 0.46% per 1% PAR reduction. A major impact was that the leaf dry matter content, leaf starch content and leaf sugar content of shaded plants diminished significantly. In the course of the following 2 weeks under full light, the leaf photosynthesis of the plants previously shaded recovered fully and the leaf area index rose to 3.3 m2 m−2, considered sufficient for optimal crop photosynthesis. The yield from plants previously shaded diminished slightly as early as from the first harvest week on. These yield losses increased further over the next few weeks, measuring approximately 0.8 kg m−2 per 1 mol m−2 day−1 PAR reduction in the early growth phase. The effect of PAR on plant growth was proportional when relating the PAR integral over the entire experimental period to the total yield and to the total dry matter production, respectively.

Identification and phenotypic description of new wheat – six-rowed winter barley disomic additions

To increase the allelic variation in wheat-barley introgressions, new wheat-barley disomic addition lines were developed containing the 2H, 3H, 4H, 6H, and 7H chromosomes of the six-rowed Ukrainian winter barley 'Manas'. This cultivar is agronomically much better adapted to Central European environmental conditions than the two-rowed spring barley 'Betzes' previously used. A single 'Asakaze'× 'Manas' wheat× barley hybrid plant was multiplied in vitro and one backcross plant was obtained after pollinating 354 regenerant hybrids with wheat. The addition lines were selected from the self-fertilized seeds of the 16 BC(2) plants using genomic in situ hybridization. The addition lines were identified by fluorescence in situ hybridization using repetitive DNA probes (HvT01, GAA, pTa71, and Afa family), followed by confirmation with barley SSR markers. The addition lines were grown in the phytotron and in the field, and morphological parameters (plant height, fertility, tillering, and spike characteristics) were measured. The production of the disomic additions will make it possible to incorporate the DNA of six-rowed winter barley into the wheat genome. Addition lines are useful for genetic studies on the traits of six-rowed winter barley and for producing new barley dissection lines.

Chipping operations and efficiency in different operational environments

This research analyses the productivity of energy wood chipping operations at several sites in Austria and Finland. The aim of the work is to examine the differences in productivity and the effects of the operational environment for the chipping of bioenergy at the roadside. Furthermore, the study quantifies the effects of different variables such as forest energy assortments, tree species, sieve size and machines on the overall productivity of chipping. The results revealed that there are significant differences in the chipping productivity in Austria and Finland which are largely based on the use of different sieve sizes. Furthermore, the different operational environments in both countries, as well as the characteristics of the raw material also seem to have an effect on productivity. In order to improve the chipping productivity, particularly in Central European conditions, all relevant stakeholders need to work jointly to find solutions that will allow a greater variation of chip size. Furthermore, in the future more consideration has to be given to the close interlinkage between the chipper, crane and grapple. As a result, investments costs can be optimized and operational costs and stress on the machines reduced.