Central Crack Research Articles

SIMULATION OF ELASTOPLASTIC FRACTURE OF A CENTER CRACKED PLATE

The strength of a square plate with a central crack at normal separation was studied within the framework of the Neuber–Novozhilov approach using a modified Leonov–Panasyuk–Dugdale model using an additional parameter, the diameter of the plasticity zone (width of the pre-fracture zone). As a model of a deformable solid body, a model of an ideal elastic-plastic material with a limiting relative elongation was chosen. This class of materials includes, for example, low-alloy steels used in structures operating at temperatures below the cold brittleness threshold. In the presence of a singular feature in the stress field in the vicinity of the crack tip, it is proposed to use a two-parameter discrete integral strength criterion. The deformation fracture criterion is formulated at the tip of a real crack, and the force criterion for normal stresses, taking into account averaging, is formulated at the tip of a model crack. The lengths of real and model cracks differ by the length of the pre-fracture zone. The constitutive equations of the analytical model are analyzed in detail depending on the characteristic linear dimension of the material structure. Simple formulas suitable for verification calculations for the critical breaking load and the length of the pre-fracture zone are obtained. Numerical modeling of the propagation of plasticity zones in square plates under quasi-static loading has been performed. In the numerical model, the updated Lagrangian formulation of the equations of mechanics of a deformable solid body is used, which is most preferable for modeling the deformation of bodies made of an elastic-plastic material at large deformation. The plastic zone in the vicinity of the crack tip is obtained by the finite element method. The results of analytical and numerical prediction of plate fracture under plane deformation are compared. It is shown that the results of numerical experiments are in good agreement with the results of calculations using the analytical model of fracture of materials with a structure under normal separation. Diagrams of quasi-brittle and quasi-ductile fracture of a structured plate are constructed.

Investigation of Buckling Behavior of Cracked FG Cylindrical Panels Reinforced by Graphene Platelets

The buckling behavior of a functionally graded graphene-platelet-reinforced composite (FG-GPLRC) was traditionally investigated, mostly with respect to its undamaged structures. In this context, the current study investigated the buckling behavior of an FG-GPLRC cylindrical panel with an anti-symmetric central crack by introducing a 2-D extended natural element method (XNEM). The displacement was basically expressed with the first-order shear deformation theory (FSDT) and approximated using Laplace interpolation functions (for the non-singular displacement part) and crack-tip singular functions (for the singular displacement part) without grid refinement around the crack tips. The complex numerical manipulation on the curved shell surface was resolved by geometrically transforming the curved shell surface to a 2-D planar rectangular NEM grid. The painstaking numerical locking was suppressed by adopting the concept of a stabilized MITC3+ shell element. The validity of the developed numerical method was examined through a benchmark test, and the fundamental buckling loads of cracked FG-GPLRC cylindrical panels were investigated in depth by changing the major parameters. The numerical results also included a comparison with the FG-CNTRC. The numerical results indicated that the developed numerical method effectively predicts the buckling loads with reasonable accuracy, and that the fundamental buckling load of cracked FG-GPLRC cylindrical panels are remarkably influenced by the inclination angle and length of the crack as well as the other associated parameters.

In-field electro-magnetic-force characteristics of high-temperature superconducting films containing cracks

Superconducting materials have so far been applied in the fields of superconducting motors, flux pumps and nuclear magnetic resonance, but they are prone to mechanical damage due to their material properties. In this paper, the influences of different crack types (including position, angle, size, quantity and spacing) on the characteristics of current-carrying and excited superconducting thin films are analyzed by numerical simulations, as well as their electromagnetic and mechanical characteristics. Several novel and important conclusions are found. In both states, the boundary crack presents the largest current density concentration, while the central crack produces the largest stress concentration. With the increase of crack spacing, the current density on the multi-crack film decreases and eventually tends to be stable. In the current-carrying state, compared with 3 mm cracked film, the current density of 1 mm cracked film is reduced by up to 62.5 %. The von Mises stress of high-temperature superconducting film with 0.1 mm single-spacing cracks is 22.5 % higher than that for 0.3 mm double-spacing cracks, which indicates that close spacing and a high number of crack types are most detrimental to the mechanical properties of high-temperature superconducting films. In the excited state, when the crack angle θ is 90°, the current density streamlines cannot be segmented effectively, which results in the current distribution trend closer to the defect-free film. A large amount of induced current flows into the low-flux region at the 3 mm crack, leading to an increased risk of film quench. The films with 1 mm single-spacing and double-spacing cracks form a low-flux region between the cracks, which makes the magnetic field more difficult to penetrate.

Application of modified fracture criteria incorporating T-stress for various cracked specimens under mixed mode I-II loading

Accurate assessment of fracture behavior and life prediction of cracked materials based on the mixed mode fracture criteria is of utmost importance in fracture mechanics. In this study, the modified fracture criteria incorporating T-stress for mixed mode I-II cracks were comprehensively reviewed. Additionally, a comparative analysis was conducted between the experimental results obtained from five different cracked configurations and the theoretical predictions according to these modified criteria. Moreover, a brief discussion was held regarding the effect of T-stress on both crack initiation angle and fracture toughness, accompanied by providing some suggestions. The results revealed that the predictive accuracy of modified criteria exhibited noticeable variations across different cracked configurations due to the significant disparities in both the sign and magnitude of T-stress around the crack tip. However, it was observed that the predicted curves based on the modified fracture criteria for the semi-circular bend and edge-crack triangular specimens had remarkable similarities owing to their similar biaxial stress ratio B. When the mode II loading dominated, the generalized maximum tangential stress, generalized minimum strain energy density and generalized averaged strain energy density criteria were suitable for the semi-circular bend, edge-crack triangular, central crack rectangular and short bend beam specimens with positive T-stresses, whereas the maximum tangential strain, generalized maximum tangential stress and generalized maximum tangential strain energy density criteria could provide better theoretical predictions for central cracked Brazilian disk specimens having a negative T-stress.

In Situ Observation of P91 High‐Alloy Steel Solidification Characteristics at Different Cooling Rates

To clarify the effect of different radial cooling intensities on the formation of central cracks in large round bloom continuous casting, it is necessary to study the solidification characteristics and dynamics of P91 high‐alloy steel at different cooling rates (CRs) to improve the central defects. In this article, the solidification characteristics of P91 high‐alloy steel at different CRs are studied by using the Thermo‐Calc software, high‐temperature laser confocal microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and optical microscopy. Meanwhile, the growth kinetics of δ‐Fe and γ‐Fe phases under different CRs are determined. In the results, it is shown that the solidification path of P91 high‐alloy steel is L(L + δ‐Fe) → (L + γ‐Fe + δ‐Fe) → (δ‐Fe + γ‐Fe). The δ‐Fe and γ‐Fe phase precipitation process is divided into two stages. Stage I is the nucleation and rapid growth phase, in which a high undercooling is required. Stage II is the slow growth stage, where the undercooling decreases and remains constant. The initial growth linear velocities of the δ‐Fe phase are 0.51, 2.72, and 2.09 μm s−1 at CRs of 10, 50, and 100 °C min−1, respectively, while those of the γ‐Fe phase are 0.10, 1.42, and 1.41 μm s−1.

Nonlocal stress gradient integral model with discontinuous and symmetrical conditions for size-dependent fracture of centrally-cracked nanobeams

We study the fracture of nanobeams containing central cracks using nonlocal stress gradient integral model (NSGIM) with discontinuous and symmetrical conditions. Compared with the traditional NSGIM, the present model includes some definite integral terms in the constitutive boundary constraints and the newly introduced constitutive continuity conditions. Subsequently, the Mode I and Mode II fracture problems are studied under given uniform loading (or concentrated force) conditions in opposite and same directions. In the numerical simulations, the effects of nonlocal and gradient length scale parameters on normalized energy release rates and works by external loads are investigated in detail.

Multi-scale numerical simulation of fracture behavior for the gadolinia-doped ceria (GDC) under mechano-electrochemical coupling fields at high temperature

The fracture toughness of gadolinia-doped ceria (GDC) solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) electrolyte with a central crack is significantly reduced under the mechano-electrochemical coupling fields at high temperature. In this work, an atom-to-continuum (AtC) multi-scale method combining the finite element method (FEM) and the molecular dynamics (MD) simulation is developed. Firstly, the AtC multi-scale method is validated by investigating the uniaxial tensile stress–strain curves of GDC with a central crack at different temperatures. Then, based on the theory of fracture mechanics, the macrostructure of GDC is transformed into a microscopic intermediate transition model, and a detailed computational procedure for analyzing the fracture toughness of the macrostructure of the GDC is given by the AtC multi-scale method. Finally, the fracture toughness of GDC macrostructure under the mechano-electrochemical coupling fields is studied by the proposed approach. The simulation results show that the fracture toughness of 10GDC and 20GDC under the mechano-electrochemical coupling fields is clearly reduced compared to the uniaxial tensile loading. Among them, the fracture toughness of 10GDC under the mechano-electrochemical coupling fields is decreased by 12.28% and 30.67% at 800℃ and 900℃, and the fracture toughness of 20GDC under the mechano-electrochemical coupling fields is decreased by 17.25% and 29.52% at 800℃ and 900℃. These findings are critical in predicting the fracture behavior of GDC electrolyte under real working conditions.

Dynamic responses of kerosene-filled riveted tanks subjected to hydrodynamic ram caused by ballistic impacts

The hydrodynamic ram (HRAM) is a hydrodynamic pressure phenomenon that occurs when high-speed projectiles impact a liquid-filled tank. During combat missions, aircraft are prone to HRAMs caused by projectile impacts, which can damage the structural integrity of riveted tanks, posing a threat to flight safety. In this study, kerosene-filled riveted tanks were chosen as the research object. The dynamic response histories of the rear panel were observed using the three-dimensional digital image correlation (3D-DIC) technique. Additionally, numerical simulations of the projectile's impact on the tank were performed using the fluid–structure interaction finite element method. The simulation results had a good fit with the experimental results. The spatial and temporal distribution of the HRAM and the effect of the projectile impact velocity on the deformation of the tank structure were further analyzed. The impulse exerted by the drag wave on the rear panel was greater than that of the pioneer wave. However, the drag wave's region was limited to a radius of 6 cm around the exit point with the impact velocity range of the projectile of 955 m·s−1–1607 m·s−1 in both the experiments and simulations. When the impact velocity of the projectile reached 955 m·s−1, radial plastic hinge lines appeared on the rear panel along the diagonal direction. When the impact velocity increased to 1607 m·s−1, radial plastic hinge lines along the diagonal direction, and traveling plastic hinges at the root of the central cross-shaped cracks appeared on the rear panel, accompanied by a petal-shaped hole. Based on the spatial distribution of the impulse on the rear panel, a dimensional relationship was established between the hole size and the impulse on the rear panel. The petal model for describing petal-shaped cracks was proposed based on the law of conservation of energy, which could predict the hole size in the case of projectile impact at high velocity. The research results are of great significance for the study of the damage of riveted tanks with HRAMs and provide support for the vulnerability analysis of aircraft tanks.

Peridynamic modeling of elastic-plastic ductile fracture

A peridynamics-based framework is established for the elastic-plastic ductile fracture analysis. In this frame, a new state-based peridynamic elastic-plastic model is presented using the novel bond extension state forms of yield function and plastic flow rule. The nonlinear energy release rate is computed by the extended peridynamic finite crack extension (PFCE) method, and an energy dissipation rate-based bond failure criterion is proposed for ductile crack growth modeling. Numerical methods for plastic states update and yield function solution are also given. Then, examples of plates with a center hole or a center crack, and compact tension (CT) tests are analyzed by the proposed models, and compared to those from theoretical and FEM solutions. The results demonstrate that the proposed peridynamic models can well capture the characteristics of elastic-plastic deformation and ductile fracture, including the plastic shape and size, energy distributions, nonlinear energy release rate, load-displacement and resistance curves, etc.

INFLUENCE OF HIGH-ORDER TERMS IN THE SOLUTION GENERALIZING THE APPROACH OF M. WILLIAMS, TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE ANISOTROPY OF THE MATERIAL

The research is devoted to the study of the stress field at the crack tip in an anisotropic material with three mutually orthogonal axes of symmetry of the fourth order (with cubic symmetry). A plane case is considered when one of the axes of symmetry is orthogonal to the cracked plate, and the remaining two axes lie in the plane of the plate. The paper presents an asymptotic analysis of the contribution of higher approximations in the generalized asymptotic decomposition of mechanical fields near the crack tip in a linearly elastic anisotropic material with cubic symmetry of its elastic properties. In the article, based on the obtained solution of M. Nejati and co-authors for an infinite anisotropic plate with a central crack, circumferential apportionments of the stress tensor components at the crack tip at various distances fromthe crack tip are constructed, which makes it possible to estimate the contribution of non-singular (regular)terms to the general asymptotic representation of mechanical fields generated by an acute crack. In the work of M. Nejati, the contribution of exclusively T-stresses is analyzed, then, as shown in this work, the terms following the T-stress play a significant role in describing the fields induced by the crack. A comparison of the angular distributions of the stress tensor components constructed at different distances from the crack tip indicates that with the increase of distances from the crack tip, it is required to preserve in asymptotic series representing stresses, displacements and strains near the tip of the crack, the terms of high order of smallness. The preservation of the terms of high order of smallness can be used to expand the domain in which the asymptotic solution in the series is valid.

Nominal strength of notched pseudo-ductile specimens

Quasi-brittle materials like composites are notch-sensitive, and the stress concentration factor (Kt) determines their strength knock-down. To alleviate this notch sensitivity, researchers are pursuing pseudo-ductility to stimulate stress redistribution around the notches. However, how such a pseudo-ductile material reduces Kt or improves the nominal strength (σN) in notched sub-components (centre crack, elliptical hole and open hole) is unclear. In this work, we analytically determine the Kt of typical notched specimens made of an idealised pseudo-ductile material and show its accuracy using Finite Element (FE) models. Kt increases after the specimen transitions from localised yielding to net-section yielding. Then, we elucidate the size-effect behaviour of the notched sub-components using FE models. The study reveals that the notched pseudo-ductile specimens recover higher σN than their linear elastic counterparts, in proportion to the Kt. However, pseudo-ductility decreases the σN for smaller specimens, and the notch shape is unimportant in this region.

Accuracy verification of fast adaptive galerkin finite volume solver for thermal and mechanical load crack propagation in triangular meshes

This study presents the details of the Galerkin finite volume method for triangular unstructured meshes and its application for the fracture analysis of 2D elasticity problems under simultaneous thermal and mechanical loading. The heat diffusion and elasticity equations are discretized using the Galerkin finite volume method (which, due to omitting matrix manipulation calculations, computations are considerably faster than FEM and XFEM Solvers). The maximum tangential stress criterion is presented after briefly describing the interaction integral formulation used to calculate the stress intensity factors in thermo-mechanical problems. The accuracy of the computed results of the present strategy under thermo-mechanical loads is demonstrated using some benchmark test cases. First, a thermal stress analysis of a plate with an inclined central crack under thermal boundary conditions is performed. Second, the development of a crack under mechanical stress boundary conditions is modeled. Third, crack propagation under both thermal and mechanical boundary conditions is simulated. The present modeling strategy's results are compared with those reported in previous numerical works to verify the accuracy. The stress intensity factors and predicted crack trajectories are utilized to assess the accuracy of computed results and investigate the quality of crack simulation by the proposed numerical method.

Evolution of tungsten degradation under different cyclic ELM-like high heat flux plasma

A millisecond pulsed repetitive plasma generator based on capillary discharge is utilized to produce ELM-like heat load. Based on this device, the evolution of tungsten degradation under heat loads with different heat fluxes, pulses, and frequencies is investigated. With an increase of heat flux and pulse, the tungsten surface experiences an increasing melting and cracking damage. The cross-sections of samples are analyzed to investigate the mechanisms of crack formation and propagation. There are numerous small cracks of ∼20 μm length in the melting layer, which may extend to form the primary cracks under further stress. Among the primary cracks, the central crack in the heat-affected layer initially propagates perpendicularly to the surface and grows parallel to the surface, converging with the edge cracks under cyclic high heat loads. And the microstructures near cracks also reveal the mechanism of crack formation, including the intergranular primary cracks and partial transgranular secondary cracks. This work provides a novel approach to simulating ELM-like thermal load and corresponding tungsten cracking behavior under repetitive high heat flux plasma.

Influence of cracks on nonlinear motion of high-temperature superconducting magnetic levitation system

The magnetic levitation system of a high-temperature superconductor (HTSC) has nonlinear vibration under external excitation, in which the HTSC is subjected to a sizable electromagnetic force. The high-temperature superconducting block is a brittle material, which will crack when subject to heavy pressure. Microfracture of superconductors is inevitable, especially in superconducting magnetic levitation systems. Our paper studies the fracture behavior of a YBaCuO superconducting magnetic levitation system under a large electromagnetic force based on nonlinear bifurcated motions. The E − J constitutive model and the current vector T method are applied to obtain the electromagnetic force of the bulk superconductor during vibration. We analyze the effects of five lengths of the central crack on vibration displacements, the electric field distribution, and the electromagnetic force of superconductors. Without damages, the system does not have apparent bifurcation motion. For the inner cracks, the system has obvious bifurcation motions. The results show that the cracks have a meaningful influence on the nonlinear vibration of the superconducting magnetic levitation system. The displacement of the suspended permanent magnet in bifurcation motion increases with the increase in the crack length, and the collision occurs when the crack length reaches 15 mm.

An innovative model to estimate the tension field inclination considering crack growth for steel plate shear wall

The Steel Plate Shear Walls (SPSWs) are known as a capable system to use in steel structures due to their significant advantages. Despite extensive studies concerning this system, few researchers have scrutinized thecrack effect on SPSW behavior. However, the crack dramatically affected the experimental results. In the currentpaper, the effect of central and edge cracks, therefore, has been studied in jointed plates at mid-height of SPSW.Results indicated that the central crack is more destructive than the edge crack. The central crack having a long initial length also makes a sudden wall fracture in the elastic zone and consequently cannot be used in high seismic regions. Due to the dependence of the wall on the diagonal tension field and its angle, an equationis proposed taking into account shear, axial, and moment actions in columns, axial and moment actions in beams, as well as shear and axial actions in the plate which conform to finite element results. Because of thecomplication of the stress intensity factor for mode I and mode II calculations, this confidence is derived and offered.

A machine-learning interatomic potential to understand the anisotropic fracture behavior of BaZrO3 material

The complex operating environment severely tests the mechanical stability of the electrolyte material BaZrO3 (BZO), which affects the performance of solid oxide fuel cells(SOFCs). Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation provides an efficient method to research the mechanical behavior of nanocrystalline materials. In the interest of researching the mechanical behavior of BZO materials utilizing a machine learning (ML) MD approach, this article has established the most effective ML potential with DFT reliability. By contrasting the lattice constants and elastic constants with the DFT data, the precision of the potential was confirmed. By simulating the uniaxial tensile mechanical behavior of the BZO models without crack and with a central crack in the crystal orientation of [100] and [110], we found that the BZO material has a significant anisotropic property. In the crack-free model, the BZO crack propagation mode in the [100] crystal orientation is a shear fracture. The central microcrack tilts downward and expands symmetrically in the [110] crystal-oriented BZO model. When the initial structure with a central crack, the fracture mode changes significantly, and in both crystal orientations, the crack fracture along the BaO plane, the crack expands horizontally in the BZO model in the [100] crystal orientation and the crack expands zigzag in the BZO model in the [110] crystal orientation. The calculations of fracture strength, critical energy release rate, and fracture toughness show that the [110] crystal-oriented BZO has a stronger resistance to fracture than the [100] crystal-oriented BZO model.

Experimental and Numerical Study of Concrete Fracture Behavior with Multiple Cracks Based on the Meso-Model.

In this paper, a series of experimental and numerical studies were carried out to investigate the effect of multiple cracks on concrete fracture behavior. Seven groups of double-crack concrete three-point bending (TPB) experiments with different crack lengths and different crack distances were carried out. The experimental results showed that the bearing capacity of double-crack specimens was slightly larger than the standard specimen with one central crack. Additionally, with an increase in the second crack length or with a crack distance reduction, the concrete's bearing capacity increased correspondingly. Based on the experiments, a numerical meso-model was developed based on applying cohesive elements. The aggregate, mortar, interface transition zone (ITZ), and potential fracture surfaces were explicitly considered in the model. In particular, cohesive elements were used to characterize the mechanical behavior of the ITZ and potential fracture surfaces. A modified constitutive concrete model was developed by considering the potential fracture surfaces' damage relation and friction effect. The accuracy of the developed meso-model was validated through a comparison between simulation and experiments. Based on meso-models, the influence of multiple cracks on the concrete bearing capacity was investigated by analyzing the energy evolution. The analysis results showed that the bearing capacity has a linear relation with the proportion of mode II energy consumption during the fracture process, which explains why specimens with multiple cracks have a slightly larger bearing capacity than the standard specimens. In summary, this study has found that in three-point bending fracture tests primarily characterized by mode I fractures, the presence of multiple cracks near the main crack slightly enhances the load-bearing capacity of the specimens. This is attributed to a slight increase in internal energy dissipation associated with the presence of these multiple cracks.

Converting polymer-wastes to green nanocomposites in Saudi Arabia: Investigation of fracture parameters (KIc, KIIc, θc, σc) for quality and sustainability evaluation

The intrinsic fracture-parameters including fracture-envelope (KI-KII), fracture-direction (θc) and fracture-load (σc), are predicted experimentally at different crack inclination-angle (β) for each of pure-original polyethylene (HDPE, LDPE) and advanced green-nanocomposite CPNC made of (95%) recycled waste polyethylene (HDPE, LDPE) and (5%) montmorillonite MMT nanoclay NC. These fracture factors represent evaluation of material quality and sustainability. These fracture parameters are investigated experimentally and compared with characterization of microstructure, interfacial-bond, chemical composition, and crystallinity. These parameters are depending on material type, crack type, crack-location, crack-shape, crack-geometry, crack-orientation, crack-dimensions, and loading type. Nanocomposite called clay-based polymer nanocomposite CPNC is produced of recycled polymers with special mixing technique with (5%) surface modified natural nanoclay. Pre-cracked recycled-CPNC, HDPE and LDPE samples are tested with different crack-orientations of central cracks and edge cracks under far-field tension load. Characterizations of microstructure, bond and chemical composition are conducted by SEM and EDAX for investigating the differences between original and recycled materials. The results are compared to each other with detailed discussion showing good results of converting of contaminated waste-materials to valuable advanced green ecofriendly nanocomposite suitable for different fields like medical applications, dental biomaterials for orthodontics, dental-restoration for fracture under caries and occlusal stresses and other industrial applications.

Analytical computation of stress intensity factor for active material particles of lithium ion batteries

The stress intensity factor is a widely used parameter in linear elastic fracture mechanics to assess the stress field near the crack tip, and it is usually defined as the product between the remote stress, the square root of the crack length, and a geometric factor depending on the geometry of the test specimen, the size and location of the crack. However, this well-established expression cannot be used in case of non-constant stress distribution on crack surfaces, typically resulting from diffusive field. This work presents an analytical procedure to compute the stress intensity factor due to any kind of stress distribution that can be expressed as a polynomial. Firstly, the non-constant stress distribution is expressed as a polynomial. Then, the stress intensity factor is computed according to the principle of superposition of effects, as the sum of the stress components of each single polynomial grade and the corresponding geometric factors. The geometric factors for sphere with central and superficial cracks are determined using a finite element model, and closed-form expressions for these geometric factors are provided as functions of a normalized geometric parameter. These functions can be used in case of any stress loading and spherical geometry. The analytical procedure is specifically applied to assess the stress intensity factor caused by stress resulting from lithium diffusion in active material particles of lithium ions batteries electrodes. The results are compared with those obtained using a multiphysics finite element fracture model, showing good agreement and demonstrating the accuracy of the proposed analytical procedure. Then, the procedure presented in this work enables avoiding expensive multiphysics simulations and can be used to develop fast, accurate, and computationally efficient lithium ion batteries degradation models for the online estimation of the capacity decay with charge/discharge cycles.

CLOSED-FORM SOLUTION OF A METAL PLATE WITH A CENTRAL CRACK UNDER TENSION

Accurate prediction of stress and displacement in plates with central cracks is vital for engineering design safety. However, the impact of finite plate size on stress and displacement distribution is an important factor that has not been fully addressed in previous studies, highlighting the need for further investigation. Thus, this study presents a closed-form elastic solution for a rectangular plate with a central crack under tension load. The solution uses complex polynomial functions satisfying equilibrium equations and boundary conditions. Numerical finite element models verify the analytical solution's accuracy for plates with varying crack lengths. The presented closed-form solution accounts for the impact of finite plate size on stress and displacement distribution accurately. Developing closed-form solutions for structural mechanics problems enables engineers to optimize designs for safety, efficiency, and cost-effectiveness more accurately.