Census Of India Research Articles

Overcoming Educational Barriers: Analyzing Root Causes and Solutions for Gender Disparity in Adivasi Education

This paper examines the current state of the gender gap in literacy rates and school education among Adivasi populations in India. Despite significant progress in overall literacy rates in recent decades, Adivasi communities, particularly Adivasi girls, continue to lag behind. We analyze the latest data from the Census of India, National Family Health Surveys, and other government reports to quantify the extent of the gender gap in literacy and school enrollment, attendance, and dropout rates among major Adivasi groups across different states. Root causes including poverty, lack of access to schools, cultural norms, early marriage, and lack of female teachers are explored. The paper also reviews recent government initiatives and welfare schemes aimed at promoting education of Adivasi girls and reducing gender disparity. Based on the analysis, targeted policy recommendations are made to accelerate progress in closing the gender gap and ensuring basic school education for all Adivasi girls in India.

American Indian census rolls: An underutilized source of historical demographic information on tribal populations

Historical information on tribal populations in the United States is incomplete. American Indians and Alaska Natives were not enumerated with the general population until the 1940 decennial census. However, Indian Census Rolls were produced for the period 1885 – 1940 under the auspices of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the U.S. The information given in the Indian Census Rolls varies but usually includes the roll number, age, gender, tribal identity, and relationship to the head of the family. In this paper, we present background information on Indian Census Rolls and demonstrate how the digitized microfiche census roll schedules can be assembled into an Excel file. We also provide examples of the potential uses of Indian Census Rolls. We conclude that Indian Census Rolls can not only help bridge the gaps in the historical demography of American Indians but also provide the basis for a clearer picture of the current and future demographic characteristics of American Indians.

Unveiling Kerala’s Distinct Urbanisation: A Comparative Analysis within India

Urbanisation is a pivotal demographic transformation that characterised the twentieth century, serving as a crucial indicator of modernisation intimately intertwined with economic growth and development. Significantly, in its journey as a developing nation, India is witnessing a rapid surge in urbanisation, a trend that surpassed expectations, as evidenced by the 2011 Census. The surge in India’s urban population is primarily attributed to a combination of net rural–urban reclassification and rural-to-urban migration. It is essential to recognise the distinctive nature of Kerala in this context, as the state diverges significantly from the patterns observed in other regions. The urbanisation unfolding in Kerala is not confined solely to designated towns and cities; instead, the entire state portrays a nuanced urban–rural continuum. In this study, an exploration is undertaken to dissect the trends and patterns of urbanisation in Kerala, delving into its unique characteristics and associated challenges based on data provided by the Census of India. Regression analysis is used to determine the factors that contribute to Kerala’s urbanisation, which shows that urbanisation process is influenced by a complex interplay of financial, economic and demographic factors. Over the decade, banking has become a crucial driver of urbanisation, highlighting its growing role in supporting urban growth and development. In contrast, the significance of investment in small-scale industries/micro, small and medium enterprises has diminished by 2011, suggesting shifts in the economic landscape and pointing to the rising importance of services and remittances as sources of urban expansion. Household dynamics, consistently significant in both years, emphasise the critical role of population changes and family structures in shaping urbanisation trends. Despite the continuous rise in urbanisation rates, there persists a noticeable sluggishness in development, especially regarding the provision of essential amenities. This aspect necessitates focused policy attention to address the challenges accompanying Kerala’s evolving urban landscape. JEL Codes: O18, R23, R12

Assessing the adequacy of health facilities for the aging population in Indian cities

India, a developing country and currently the most populous nation, has been experiencing a rapid and unpredictable increase in the proportion of its older population. The healthcare system is already struggling to meet the needs of the current population, and the rising number of older adults is expected to further strain resources. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the distribution of the older population in Indian cities and their access to advanced health facilities. The study uses data from Census of India, 2011, which is the latest census data available. A Health Facilities Index was developed to assess the availability of health facilities, and a geospatial approach was adopted to determine aging patterns and access to health facilities across cities. Despite similar aging trends, health infrastructure was unevenly distributed across cities. The study revealed that advanced health facilities were concentrated in specific areas, primarily metropolitan cities, whereas smaller cities lacked adequate health facilities and accessibility. Therefore, improving health infrastructure in smaller cities to match that in larger ones should be prioritized. The findings highlight a notable infrastructure gap in Indian cities, which presents a significant challenge to achieving healthy aging in the country.

Tribal mobilization for religious identity and political space: ongoing demand for inclusion of Sarna-Tribal religion in the census of India

ABSTRACT The public mobilization of religious communities to acquire political space has been a heated discussion among scholars worldwide. Research reveals a long history of religious communities participating in political movements. However, in India, the debate on the recognition and protection of religious identity has been reduced to a discourse of minority versus majority religion. This paper examines the ongoing political mobilization by tribal communities in the state of Jharkhand and its demand for a separate religious column in the census of India. The underlying motive of this mobilization is to establish their religious identity, which is separate from both Hinduism and Christianity, and to resist the encroachment of tribal land by campaigning for tribal control over state resources through strengthening the constitutional provisions. The study focuses on tribal protests on social media platforms, in addition to the 2019 protest at Jantar Mantar, New Delhi, initiated by tribal groups demanding the Sarna-tribal religion as a legitimate religious choice in the census of India. The study used qualitative inductive analysis on data sourced through participant observation and 50 semi-structured interviews. The results prove that the ongoing protest for the recognition of the Sarna-tribal religion is stimulated by the threat to their religious identity and land rights. Additionally, social media played a crucial role in informing, mobilizing, and stimulating feelings of collective group identity.

Shifting Sands: Analyzing the Evolving Rural Occupational Landscape of Ajmer District, Rajasthan

This study investigates the rural occupational structure of Ajmer district of Rajasthan. The research looks into the distribution of labour within several areas, including agriculture, industry, and services. From the use of secondary data from the 2011 India census, the predominance of agriculture in the rural economy is revealed while acknowledging swings toward non-agricultural activities which is mainly influenced by urbanization and government interventions. The workforce clearly split by gender, with males working in jobs that pay more and women mostly hired for lower-paying positions. This study provides information about the socioeconomic background of the Ajmer district, showing the need for policy makers to step in and encourage rural growth. The results clearly make a way to understand rural livelihoods and the policy makers can easily utilise these for a better rural transformation.

The cultural role of rice cultivation in female workforce participation in India

Rice and wheat are India's staple cereal crops and there is significant regional variation in the suitability to the cultivation of each. Both are so-called ‘plough-positive’ crops, whose cultivation is benefited by ploughing. It has previously been argued that the ancient adoption of the plough, a heavy implement better suited to handling by men, was a factor in the evolution of cultural norms prescribing a domestic role for women in society (Boserup, 1970). This study contends that rice is an anomalous plough-positive crop in that its cultivation, highly labor-intensive, has traditionally required much female labor. This, it is argued, may have led to a local loosening of plough culture's strictures against work by Indian women proportional to the local relative, to wheat, suitability to rice cultivation.To distinguish between a cultural effect and the technical effect of the labor-intensivity of rice cultivation, this study considers the workforce participation of urban women, spatially removed from agricultural operations. It is found that the district urban female workforce participation rates in both the 2001 and 2011 Censuses of India significantly increase in the district relative suitability to rice cultivation. Further, the increase in the district urban female workforce participation rate between 2001 and 2011 was significantly more pronounced in districts potentially better suited to growing rice than wheat. In addition, analysis of microdata from the 1999–2000 National Sample Survey of Employment and Unemployment reveals that the urban female propensity to work significantly increases in the district relative suitability to rice cultivation, though, tellingly, only so in the case of natives of the district, those whose culture will have been shaped by the local agro-ecology. Finally, urban females principally engaged in domestic duties are likelier to report that they are required to be so occupied, the compulsion probably cultural in nature, the less relatively suitable the district is to rice cultivation, with this effect too confined to natives of the district. Taken together, these findings suggest that rice cultivation has played a cultural role in Indian women's workforce participation.

URBANIZATION AND SOCIAL CRIME: A STUDY ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS OF THE MANIPUR CENTRAL VALLEY

Geography is concerned to provide accurate, orderly, and rational description and interpretation of the earth's surface. The study of population dynamics and its impact on social crime is crucial for understanding regional development and planning. The present study examines the dynamics of population growth, urbanization, and social crime in Manipur's Central Valley. Utilizing, the data from the primary and secondary sources (such: NCRB, Superintendent of Police, Manipur central Valley, and Census of India). The research adopts technique, such as Decadal Growth method, Principal component Analysis. Over a 70-year period from 1951 to 2021, the region witnessed a consistent rise in population, growing from 3,87,523 to 18,77,416. Despite this growth, the pace has decelerated, reflecting a shift from high to moderate growth rates due to factors such as birth rates, mortality rates, and migration patterns. Urban population data from the 2011 Census reveals significant regional disparities, with Imphal West being the most urbanized and Bishnupur the least. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of social crime data identifies three key patterns: "Anomie Violence," "Marginalized Deviance," and "Economic Strain Deviance," each associated with different regions and types of crime. A comparison of social crime patterns with urban population sizes highlights varying correlations, suggesting complex interactions between demographic changes and crime rates. This analysis underscores the need for targeted urban planning and crime prevention strategies in response to evolving socio-economic dimensions.

The Minority Languages of Tripura with Special Reference to Kokborok Language: A Study on the Language Demography of Tripura, India

Linguistically, Tripura is a case of one dominant language and several minority languages. This study aims to identify the minority languages endemic to Tripura, with the objective of preserving and protecting the identified languages. The present study is based on the secondary data collected from the Census of India, 2011 and Ethnologue, 2024. The descriptive research method has been used to analyse the data. The study reveals that eight minority languages are enlisted by the Directorate of Kokborok and Other Minority Languages in Tripura. The eight languages are Kokborok, Manipuri, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Kuki-Mizo, Garo, Halam, Chakma and Mogh. Out of the eight minority languages enlisted by the said directorate of Tripura, Kokborok is the only language endemic to Tripura, and other minority languages have their language core areas outside the state. The core area of Kokborok is situated in Tripura, and the periphery areas are spread in the adjacent Indian states of Mizoram and Assam and Chittagong hill tracts of Bangladesh. However, the Kokborok language is a vulnerable minority language in its core area. The language speakers account for only 25.9 per cent of the total speakers in Tripura. Even after gaining official status on January 19, 1979, the Kokborok language is not widely used in educational institutions, official circulars, press, television, courts, and financial or social institutions, weakening language vitality. Therefore, considering the endemic character of the Kokborok language, meaning that the Kokborok language holds unique traits and adaptations to environmental conditions in the region, its minority status and low language vitality, the Kokborok language needs to be preserved and protected.

The Changing Trend of Tribal Education in West Bengal with Special Emphasis on the Girl Students

Education is an investment towards development. Gender gap in education is common among the backward classes of people in India. Aim of this study is to understand the recent trend of tribal education among the Scheduled Tribes of West Bengal. Study covered four districts from different zones of West Bengal. These were Alipurduar from north, Birbhum from central part, Purulia from west and South 24 Pargana from the southern part. The selected villages were chiefly inhabited by the tribal population. Secondary data related to tribal education were collected from Census of India (2011) and Statistics of School Education (2010- 11), while primary data were collected through field work in four districts. Both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection were followed. A structured schedule was used for collection of household level data, which covered education related questions. Personal interviews with the teachers, parents and case studies of the students supplemented the quantitative data. Fourteen different tribal groups were studied in the selected areas during field work. Secondary sources suggest educational backwardness and gender gap among the tribal population. Findings show district wise and community specific variation in status of education among the studied population. A positive development was observed in case of girl’s education. The gender gap is gradually decreasing. Among many factors responsible for this changing trend, major was development programmes meant for girl’s education in West Bengal.

An Empirical Study of the Impact of NREGA Implementation on Rural Poverty Rates in India

The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA), now known as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), was implemented in India with the objective of enhancing livelihood security in rural areas by providing at least 100 days of wage employment per year to every household willing to do unskilled manual work. This study empirically examines the impact of NREGA on rural poverty rates in India, utilizing a Difference-in-Differences (DID) approach to analyze data from the National Sample Survey (NSS) and Census of India. The findings reveal a significant reduction in rural poverty rates in districts where NREGA was implemented compared to non-NREGA districts. The program has been particularly effective in regions with higher initial poverty levels, indicating successful targeting of the most vulnerable populations. Additionally, the study highlights regional variations in the impact of NREGA, with some areas experiencing greater benefits than others. The results suggest that while NREGA has substantially contributed to poverty reduction, its effectiveness is influenced by local governance and administrative capacities. Policy recommendations include improving administrative efficiency, enhancing the quality and sustainability of created assets, and complementing NREGA with other skill development and capacity-building initiatives. Addressing regional disparities and ensuring robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms are also crucial for maximizing the program’s impact.

Interstate outmigration in India and the COVID-19 pandemic: Challenges and emerging perspectives

Interstate migrants from less developed states seek better livelihoods in more developed ones, yet encounter challenges such as loss of state benefits and workplace mistreatment. Drawing data from the Indian Census of 1991, 2001, and 2011, this paper examines interstate outmigration in India and the challenges faced by migrants in their destination areas. The results revealed that low-income states such as Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, and Odisha are among the top migratory states in the country. This result aligns with developmental theories, which believe that migration helps both sources and destination areas through optimal allocation of factors of production. Further, an analysis of female outmigration for economic reasons revealed disparities between the top female outmigratory states and total outmigratory states. Hence, it can be inferred that female interstate migration for economic reasons is not simply an association with their male counterparts. The paper then highlights common problems faced by migrants at destination points and underscores the 2020 migrant crises that the country experienced due to lockdowns amid the COVID-19 pandemic. In conclusion, by analyzing the existing policy measures of the government, the study proposes short-term (also to address current migrant crises) and long-term policy measures to mitigate challenges associated with outmigration.

Historical Developments, Challenges, Legal Rights, and Current Status of Transgender Communities in India

The presence of transgender groups in India holds considerable cultural and historical significance. Despite their longstanding presence in Indian society, comprehensive data on their socio-economic status remains scant, with the 2011 Indian Census marking a notable first step in enumerating the transgender population. This community grapples with multifaceted challenges, including familial rejection, limited educational and employment opportunities, and widespread discrimination. The prevailing social stigma and lack of acceptance often lead to exclusion from mainstream society, perpetuating cycles of poverty, illiteracy, and vulnerability. Addressing the complex challenges faced by transgender communities requires concerted efforts from policymakers, civil society, and the broader community to foster awareness, challenge societal norms, and implement inclusive policies that uphold their rights and dignity. Embracing diversity, promoting inclusivity, and fostering equitable opportunities are essential steps towards creating a society where transgender individuals can live with dignity, respect, and equal opportunities.

IJCM_383A: Sociodemographic and fertility profile of post-natal women attending tertiary care hospitals in Mangaluru: A cross-sectional study

Background: The Indian census highlights persistent challenges in achieving balanced sex ratios, attributed to factors like female neglect, sex-selective abortion, and societal preferences for sons. These preferences stem from economic, religious, and social norms, perpetuating gender disparities. Despite national efforts, skewed sex ratios persist, particularly in regions like Haryana and Punjab. However, some areas, like Dakshina Kannada district in Karnataka, exhibit more favorable sex ratios, reflecting progress in gender equality. Overall, sex ratio improvement signifies societal health and equity in population distribution. This study aims to explore the socio demographic and fertility profile of post-natal women & factors affecting to gender preference among the study population. Methodology: This cross-sectional study was conducted among 155 multiparous post-natal women, who were admitted in Lady Goshen Hospital and Kasturba Medical College, Attavar, Affiliated to Kasturba Medical college, Mangalore. Data was analyzed using SPSS version 25. Results were expressed using descriptive statistics and proportions. Results: In the study of postnatal women, the recent delivery of outcome was 84 females and 71 males and only 50.9% were aware of contraceptive methods, with condoms and IUCDs being most common among them. Despite this, 78.0% of respondents still perceive female feticide as prevalent. Son preference remains prominent, with 57.0% preferring a daughter as the second child if the first child is a son, and 75.0% desiring a son if the first child is a daughter, indicating a stronger bias towards sons. Conclusions: While most prefer two children, preferences for the second child vary based on the gender of the first child, reflecting societal gender biases. Superstitions regarding gender prediction were noted but deemed insignificant. The attitude of the mothers in study settings is comparative with the favorable sex ratios in the district.

Interpretive Methods as Policy Tools: The COVID-19 Migration Crisis in India and the Case for Policy Innovation

Attempts to quantify and measure migration in India have proved inadequate as far as policy change is concerned. The Census of India 2011 and the National Sample Surveys (particularly the 64th Round conducted between 2007 and 2008), while useful, are too infrequent and temporally limited to offer insights into real-time movements and seasonal migration. On the other hand, even when data is available, it can be difficult to use it to understand future patterns and reactions to policy changes, as the COVID-19 pandemic-induced crisis showed. It was not just the number of migrants residing in major cities that was unanticipated. The government and local authorities also failed to anticipate the impetus for migrant labourers to move back to their hometowns once their revenue streams were cut off. This suggests that the government had not considered the subjective, emotional concerns that migrants had about their well-being, and consequently failed to predict how they would react. This article argues that a paradigm shift towards a deeper, more wide-ranging use of qualitative-interpretive methods is in order if we are to obtain a fuller picture of migrant needs and actions. This qualitative data may then be used in tandem with surveys, enumerations and quantitative studies to predict both the quantum and the direction of migrant movements, actions and reactions. These methods are, therefore, not just supplementary, but critical policy tools in themselves, allowing policymakers to craft interventions and responses that account for the subjective considerations surrounding migrant mobility.

Patterns of Sex Ratio and Child Sex Ratio: Global to National Level Scenario of Last Few Decades

An effort has been made to examine the patterns of sex ratio and child sex ratio from last few decades in the world with special reference to India. This study is based on secondary data which is obtained from United Nations Population Division, Department of Social and Economic Affairs, World Population Prospects: 1992, 2002 and 2015 Divisions and Census of India. The study identifies the driving factors responsible for global to national level variations in terms of sex ratio and child sex ratio. It has been found that the sex ratio and child sex ratio of the Asian continent are skewed as compared to other parts of the world. Moreover, the present study pointed out that these adverse trends of sex ratio and child sex ratio of Asia are attributable to the introduction of sex-determination technologies, their widening supply and highly practiced sex-selective abortions. It has been observed that the strong patriarchal culture of Asia also contributes towards the widening of this gender gap. In India, the study shows that the north-eastern, eastern and southern parts of the country have reported relatively high child sex ratio as compared to northern, north-western and western parts.

Environmental Change in Coastal Region of West Bengal: A District Level Study

The 21st century experiences a rapid pace of urbanization in the world and especially in the developing countries like- India. More than half of the world's population lives in cities and towns that symbolize the unprecedented growth of urbanization. This very urbanization is coupled with social, economic, spatial and environmental impacts and challenges. Though higher rate of urbanization seems to be positive sign for economic development and overall prosperity of the regions. Contemporary urbanization in developing regions means inadequate basic infrastructural amenities, substandard housing, overcrowding, depletion of green spaces, inadequate transport facilities, and non-compliance with building bye-laws and planning regulations. This leads to multiple and serious environmental problems in the form of pollution, deforestation, wet land destruction, erosion and flooding, urban sprawl, slums and squatter settlements, and aesthetic degradation which all have adverse impacts on human's well-being. Similar kinds of impacts are visible not only in the interior parts of the country but also in the coastal zones where urban places are facing multiple challenges and ecological crisis as well. The present study focuses on the development and environment in the coastal region (including districts East Medinipur and South 24-Parganas) of West Bengal, a state with 31.87 percent level of urbanization as per Census of India 2011. Since this study is in preliminary phase, there has been made an attempt to provide an overview on the quality of life and environmental conditions in the coastal region. Present study is based on secondary source of data and information, and tries to address the following objectives: a) to examine the urbanization- environment relationships and its consequences in the coastal areas, and b) to identify and explore the emerging issue areas and concerns in the coastal region of the state.

The Census amid Language Politics: The Production of Language Data and the Politics of Mother Tongue in the Census of India, Punjab, 1941–71

Censuses serve as a reliable basis for policy formulation. However, a census’ objectivity is challenged by its own mission of creating categories to make sense of the reality it is called to document. Simply put, a census is intrinsically political because it makes choices about what to show and how. This paper analyses the Census of Punjab for the years 1941, 1951, 1961 and 1971 to locate the concepts and practices the census used to document language. It tests the proposition that, as a category-maker, the census was a player in the politics of the subjectivity it was engaged in documenting—language politics. It finds that the census adapted its modus operandi to the circumstances, altering the definition of mother tongue and tabulation of mother tongue data in ways that supported or countered specific stakes involved in the politicisation of linguistic identity. The paper highlights that in Punjab, the census had a more actively political role in addition to the well-documented one of a tool mobilised by other actors.

Population Aging in India: A Regional Comparison and Implications for Older Persons’ Welfare and Healthcare Infrastructure

Population aging is an inevitable consequence of demographic transitions, and declining fertility causes a rising burden of aging. The present study aims to project the aging index of various states nationwide up to 2031. In addition, the study estimates the year by which different states and union territories (UTs) will reach the Kerala levels index of aging (i.e., aged society). To conduct this study, data were gathered from the 2001 and 2011 Census of India. Using simple trend extrapolation techniques, we produced projections of aging indices up to 2031. Further, an index of aging of each state and union territory up to the level of Kerala state (i.e., aged society) was projected. The results showed that there will be a change in the age structure of the population from 2011 to 2031. There will be a 6% increase in the working-age group (15–59 years) and a 5% in the older population (60 years and above). However, there will be a decline of 11.2% in the children ages 0–14 years. The southern states and some states of north India, such as Punjab and Himachal Pradesh, are likely to attain Kerala’s level of aging index in the next few years. However, northern states are expected to take more years to achieve it. Therefore, there is a need to promote harmony between development and demographic change by expanding economic and social resources for older persons. The time has come to plan for the future burden of the older population across the country and arrange appropriate health facilities for them.

Male-female Differentials of Literacy in Deoghar District (Jharkhand): A Geographical Analysis

According to the census of India, “A person aged seven and above, who can both read and write with understanding in any language, is treated as literate- a person who can only read but cannot write, is not literate.” A person must be literate before he becomes educated. A higher level of education provides dynamism to society and helps in social upliftment. Literacy is a crucial indicator of socio-economic development and plays a pivotal role in shaping the future of individuals and communities. Education is one of the greatest needs of our time as it brings improvement in the quality of life and plays a pivotal role in social reconstruction. Literacy is the first indispensable step for achieving sustainable development in any area. Being an important indicator of the Human Development Index, the literacy condition of any nation has always been a critical issue to be prioritized. India, like other developing countries, is always characterized by its low level of literacy and greater disparity among the huge masses of Indian people. In this paper attempt has been made to focus on the Deoghar district, we seek to identify disparities in literacy levels, understand the factors contributing to these differences, and propose recommendations for fostering educational equity. The present study aims to highlight the level of literacy among males-females of Deoghar District by using the census data of 1991,2001 & 2011.